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This paper examines the impact of measures to reduce emissions from passenger transport, specifically buses, cars, and two-wheelers in Mumbai. These include converting diesel buses to compressed natural gas (CNG), as the Indian Supreme Court required in Delhi, which would necessitate an increase in bus fares to cover the cost of pollution controls. The authors model an increase in the price of gasoline, which should affect the ownership and use of cars and two-wheelers, as well as imposing a license fee on cars to retard growth in car ownership. The impact of each policy on emissions depends not only on how the policy affects the mode that is regulated, but on shifts to other modes. The results suggest that the most effective policy to reduce emissions from passenger vehicles-in terms of the total number of tons of PM10 (particulate matter that measure less than or equal to 10 micrometers in aerodynamic diameter) reduced-is to convert diesel buses to CNG. The conversion of 3,391 diesel buses to CNG would result in an emissions reduction of 663 tons of PM10 a year, 14 percent of total emissions from transport. The bus conversion program passes the cost-benefit test. In contrast, the results suggest the elasticities of emissions from transport with respect to a gasoline tax and a tax on vehicle ownership are -0.04 and -0.10 respectively. As a consequence, it would take substantial increases in the gasoline tax or vehicle ownership tax to produce reductions in emissions similar to the bus conversion program. These results, however, reflect the low shares of cars and two-wheelers in the Mumbai emissions inventory and need not apply to cities, such as Delhi, where these shares are higher.

Air --- Air Pollution --- Bus --- Bus Fares --- Bus System --- Buses --- Cars --- Diesel --- Diesel Buses --- Motor Vehicle --- Motor Vehicle Emissions --- Passenger Transport --- Policies --- Price of Gasoline --- Private Vehicle --- Rail --- Taxis --- Transport --- Transport Economics, Policy and Planning --- Trucks --- Vehicle Fleet

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Most real-world search and optimization problems naturally involve multiple criteria as objectives. Generally, symmetry, asymmetry, and anti-symmetry are basic characteristics of binary relationships used when modeling optimization problems. Moreover, the notion of symmetry has appeared in many articles about uncertainty theories that are employed in multi-criteria problems. Different solutions may produce trade-offs (conflicting scenarios) among different objectives. A better solution with respect to one objective may compromise other objectives. There are various factors that need to be considered to address the problems in multidisciplinary research, which is critical for the overall sustainability of human development and activity. In this regard, in recent decades, decision-making theory has been the subject of intense research activities due to its wide applications in different areas. The decision-making theory approach has become an important means to provide real-time solutions to uncertainty problems. Theories such as probability theory, fuzzy set theory, type-2 fuzzy set theory, rough set, and uncertainty theory, available in the existing literature, deal with such uncertainties. Nevertheless, the uncertain multi-criteria characteristics in such problems have not yet been explored in depth, and there is much left to be achieved in this direction. Hence, different mathematical models of real-life multi-criteria optimization problems can be developed in various uncertain frameworks with special emphasis on optimization problems.

Information technology industries --- multiple-criteria decision-making --- underground mines --- mining methods --- expert knowledge --- failure mode and effects analysis --- solar panel systems --- step-wise weight assessment ratio analysis --- grey relational analysis --- Z-number theory --- B2C e-commerce factors --- website --- MCDM --- Fuzzy AHP --- TOPSIS-Grey --- China --- IoT --- platform selection --- multi criteria decision analysis (MCDA) --- AHP --- PROMETHEE-II --- Industry 4.0 --- data envelopment analysis --- conjoint analysis --- experimental design --- criteria importance --- weight restrictions --- subjective and objective teacher efficiency --- multi-objective planning --- reverse supply chain --- robust optimization --- uncertainty --- meta-heuristic algorithm --- steel making industry --- fuzzy PIPRECIA --- fuzzy EDAS --- railway --- multi-criteria decision-making --- transport policy --- Six Sigma (6σ) --- DMAIC --- vehicle fleet --- optimization --- text mining --- Multi-Attribute Decision Making (MADM), criteria selection --- weighting --- Prospective MADM --- Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA) --- SIMUS --- decision tree --- transport plan --- Laplace’s criterion --- Hurwitz’s criterion --- q-rung orthopair fuzzy numbers --- q-rung orthopair fuzzy prioritized weighted average operator --- q-rung orthopair fuzzy prioritized weighted geometric operator --- green supply chain management --- fuzzy theory --- sustainable development --- SCOR model --- FAHP --- PROMETHEE II --- textile and garments industry --- sustainable supplier selection --- MCDA --- efficiency --- DEA --- SFA --- classification --- dimensionality reduction --- q-ROFNs --- Einstein operators --- prioritized aggregation operators --- multi-criteria group decision making --- hazardous materials --- vehicle route model (VRP) --- uncertainty theory --- chance constrained programming model --- hybrid intelligent algorithm --- linear Diophantine fuzzy set --- linear Diophantine fuzzy soft rough set --- soft rough linear Diophantine fuzzy set --- upper reduct and lower reduct --- core set --- multi-criteria decision making --- q-Rung orthopair fuzzy sets --- geometric aggregation operators based on generalized and group-generalized parameters --- water loss management --- decision making --- intuitionistic fuzzy sets --- the COMET method --- service quality --- fuzzy set --- Jensen–Shannon divergence --- shapley function --- TODIM --- port-hinterland transportation system --- bi-objective programming --- intermodal transportation --- carbon emissions --- uncertain demand --- distributionally robust --- chance constraint --- Yangtze River Economic Belt --- multi-criteria decision-analysis --- MCDA benchmark --- normalization --- entropy --- decision-making methods --- multi-criteria problems --- evolutionary algorithms --- machine learning --- fuzzy logic --- uncertain data --- consistency weights --- fuzzy preference relation (FPR) --- hesitant fuzzy preference relation (HFPR) --- Łukasiewicz consistency --- normal hesitant fuzzy preference relation (NHFPR) --- multiple criteria decision-making (MCDM) --- outsourcing provider --- DEMATEL --- CRITIC --- TOPSIS --- comparison measure --- representation --- disjoint --- multiplicative preference relation (MPR) --- group decision-making (GDM) --- incomplete fuzzy preference relation (IFPR) --- TL-consistency --- cubic m-polar fuzzy set --- Dombi’s operations --- cubic m-polar fuzzy aggregation operators with P-order (R-order) --- SIR technique --- complex networks --- social networks --- viral marketing --- information propagation --- crisp probability --- interval probability --- influence diagrams --- circuit breakers --- granular computing --- interval-valued --- intuitionistic fuzzy set --- multiple granulation --- ordered information system --- multiple-criteria decision-making --- underground mines --- mining methods --- expert knowledge --- failure mode and effects analysis --- solar panel systems --- step-wise weight assessment ratio analysis --- grey relational analysis --- Z-number theory --- B2C e-commerce factors --- website --- MCDM --- Fuzzy AHP --- TOPSIS-Grey --- China --- IoT --- platform selection --- multi criteria decision analysis (MCDA) --- AHP --- PROMETHEE-II --- Industry 4.0 --- data envelopment analysis --- conjoint analysis --- experimental design --- criteria importance --- weight restrictions --- subjective and objective teacher efficiency --- multi-objective planning --- reverse supply chain --- robust optimization --- uncertainty --- meta-heuristic algorithm --- steel making industry --- fuzzy PIPRECIA --- fuzzy EDAS --- railway --- multi-criteria decision-making --- transport policy --- Six Sigma (6σ) --- DMAIC --- vehicle fleet --- optimization --- text mining --- Multi-Attribute Decision Making (MADM), criteria selection --- weighting --- Prospective MADM --- Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA) --- SIMUS --- decision tree --- transport plan --- Laplace’s criterion --- Hurwitz’s criterion --- q-rung orthopair fuzzy numbers --- q-rung orthopair fuzzy prioritized weighted average operator --- q-rung orthopair fuzzy prioritized weighted geometric operator --- green supply chain management --- fuzzy theory --- sustainable development --- SCOR model --- FAHP --- PROMETHEE II --- textile and garments industry --- sustainable supplier selection --- MCDA --- efficiency --- DEA --- SFA --- classification --- dimensionality reduction --- q-ROFNs --- Einstein operators --- prioritized aggregation operators --- multi-criteria group decision making --- hazardous materials --- vehicle route model (VRP) --- uncertainty theory --- chance constrained programming model --- hybrid intelligent algorithm --- linear Diophantine fuzzy set --- linear Diophantine fuzzy soft rough set --- soft rough linear Diophantine fuzzy set --- upper reduct and lower reduct --- core set --- multi-criteria decision making --- q-Rung orthopair fuzzy sets --- geometric aggregation operators based on generalized and group-generalized parameters --- water loss management --- decision making --- intuitionistic fuzzy sets --- the COMET method --- service quality --- fuzzy set --- Jensen–Shannon divergence --- shapley function --- TODIM --- port-hinterland transportation system --- bi-objective programming --- intermodal transportation --- carbon emissions --- uncertain demand --- distributionally robust --- chance constraint --- Yangtze River Economic Belt --- multi-criteria decision-analysis --- MCDA benchmark --- normalization --- entropy --- decision-making methods --- multi-criteria problems --- evolutionary algorithms --- machine learning --- fuzzy logic --- uncertain data --- consistency weights --- fuzzy preference relation (FPR) --- hesitant fuzzy preference relation (HFPR) --- Łukasiewicz consistency --- normal hesitant fuzzy preference relation (NHFPR) --- multiple criteria decision-making (MCDM) --- outsourcing provider --- DEMATEL --- CRITIC --- TOPSIS --- comparison measure --- representation --- disjoint --- multiplicative preference relation (MPR) --- group decision-making (GDM) --- incomplete fuzzy preference relation (IFPR) --- TL-consistency --- cubic m-polar fuzzy set --- Dombi’s operations --- cubic m-polar fuzzy aggregation operators with P-order (R-order) --- SIR technique --- complex networks --- social networks --- viral marketing --- information propagation --- crisp probability --- interval probability --- influence diagrams --- circuit breakers --- granular computing --- interval-valued --- intuitionistic fuzzy set --- multiple granulation --- ordered information system