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Nowadays, more and more people realize the importance of global sustainability. Also, there has been an increasing number of quantitative studies investigating the connection between climate change and human societies in academia. Given this background, the Atmosphere Special Issue “Climate Change, Climatic Extremes, and Human Societies in the Past” aimed to highlight the major aspects of the climate-society nexus in ancient and recent human history. There are eight papers based on quantitative approaches to illustrate different forms of climate-society nexus in ancient, historical, and contemporary periods. Regarding ancient periods, the interconnection among climate, agriculture, and human societies is focused. Regarding historical periods, the non-linear and complex relationship between climate change and the positive checks (wars, famines, and epidemics) in historical China and pre-industrial Europe is revealed. Regarding contemporary periods, the papers focus on weather-related phenomena that significantly affect human societies. The complexity of those phenomena is also highlighted. The associated findings can help human societies to mitigate the adverse impacts of weather extremes better. This special issue contributes to the field of quantitative analysis of the climate-society nexus, both theoretically and methodologically, which could facilitate a more fruitful discussion about the climate-society nexus.

Research & information: general --- soil moisture-temperature coupling --- heatwaves --- multiple time scales --- correlation dimension method --- Geogdetector method --- interaction effect --- multi-scale --- climate change --- war --- imperial China --- Global Moran's I --- Emerging Hot Spot Analysis --- plague --- direct and indirect effects --- Structural Equation Modelling --- drought --- regional interaction --- North China Famine of 1876-1879 --- human diet --- hierarchy --- bronze age --- carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios --- decision tree --- random forest --- precipitation prediction --- machine learning --- Yangtze River valley --- Yellow River valley --- rice cultivation --- millet cultivation --- precipitation --- Neolithic China --- soil moisture-temperature coupling --- heatwaves --- multiple time scales --- correlation dimension method --- Geogdetector method --- interaction effect --- multi-scale --- climate change --- war --- imperial China --- Global Moran's I --- Emerging Hot Spot Analysis --- plague --- direct and indirect effects --- Structural Equation Modelling --- drought --- regional interaction --- North China Famine of 1876-1879 --- human diet --- hierarchy --- bronze age --- carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios --- decision tree --- random forest --- precipitation prediction --- machine learning --- Yangtze River valley --- Yellow River valley --- rice cultivation --- millet cultivation --- precipitation --- Neolithic China

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Nowadays, more and more people realize the importance of global sustainability. Also, there has been an increasing number of quantitative studies investigating the connection between climate change and human societies in academia. Given this background, the Atmosphere Special Issue “Climate Change, Climatic Extremes, and Human Societies in the Past” aimed to highlight the major aspects of the climate-society nexus in ancient and recent human history. There are eight papers based on quantitative approaches to illustrate different forms of climate-society nexus in ancient, historical, and contemporary periods. Regarding ancient periods, the interconnection among climate, agriculture, and human societies is focused. Regarding historical periods, the non-linear and complex relationship between climate change and the positive checks (wars, famines, and epidemics) in historical China and pre-industrial Europe is revealed. Regarding contemporary periods, the papers focus on weather-related phenomena that significantly affect human societies. The complexity of those phenomena is also highlighted. The associated findings can help human societies to mitigate the adverse impacts of weather extremes better. This special issue contributes to the field of quantitative analysis of the climate-society nexus, both theoretically and methodologically, which could facilitate a more fruitful discussion about the climate-society nexus.

soil moisture–temperature coupling --- heatwaves --- multiple time scales --- correlation dimension method --- Geogdetector method --- interaction effect --- multi-scale --- climate change --- war --- imperial China --- Global Moran’s I --- Emerging Hot Spot Analysis --- plague --- direct and indirect effects --- Structural Equation Modelling --- drought --- regional interaction --- North China Famine of 1876–1879 --- human diet --- hierarchy --- bronze age --- carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios --- decision tree --- random forest --- precipitation prediction --- machine learning --- Yangtze River valley --- Yellow River valley --- rice cultivation --- millet cultivation --- precipitation --- Neolithic China --- n/a --- soil moisture-temperature coupling --- Global Moran's I --- North China Famine of 1876-1879

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Jöbsis was the first to describe the in vivo application of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), also called diffuse optical spectroscopy (DOS). NIRS was originally designed for the clinical monitoring of tissue oxygenation, and today it has also become a useful tool for neuroimaging studies (functional near-infrared spectroscopy, fNIRS). However, difficulties in the selective and quantitative measurements of tissue hemoglobin (Hb), which have been central in the NIRS field for over 40 years, remain to be solved. To overcome these problems, time-domain (TD) and frequency-domain (FD) measurements have been tried. Presently, a wide range of NIRS instruments are available, including commonly available commercial instruments for continuous wave (CW) measurements, based on the modified Beer–Lambert law (steady-state domain measurements). Among these measurements, the TD measurement is the most promising approach, although compared with CW and FD measurements, TD measurements are less common, due to the need for large and expensive instruments with poor temporal resolution and limited dynamic range. However, thanks to technological developments, TD measurements are increasingly being used in research, and also in various clinical settings. This Special Issue highlights issues at the cutting edge of TD DOS and diffuse optical tomography (DOT). It covers all aspects related to TD measurements, including advances in hardware, methodology, the theory of light propagation, and clinical applications.

Medicine --- Neurosciences --- breast cancer --- diffuse optical spectroscopy --- chemotherapy --- time-domain spectroscopy --- near-infrared spectroscopy --- radiative transfer equation --- diffusion equation --- biological tissue --- time-domain instruments --- light propagation in tissue --- optical properties of tissue --- diffuse optical tomography --- fluorescence diffuse optical tomography --- time-resolved spectroscopy --- NIRS --- diffuse optics --- time-domain --- time-resolved --- brain oxygenation --- tissue saturation --- scattering --- absorption --- 3-hour sitting --- near infrared time-resolved spectroscopy --- compression stocking --- tissue oxygenation --- extracellular water --- intracellular water --- circumference --- gastrocnemius --- neonate --- vaginal delivery --- cerebral blood volume --- cerebral hemoglobin oxygen saturation --- near-infrared time-resolved spectroscopy --- near infrared spectroscopy --- aging --- prefrontal cortex --- TRS --- magnetic resonance imaging --- brain atrophy --- VSRAD --- optical pathlength --- hemoglobin --- cognitive function --- time-domain NIRS --- null source-detector separation --- brain --- noninvasive --- subcutaneous white adipose tissue --- tissue total hemoglobin --- diffuse light --- inverse problems --- optical tomography --- inverse problem --- datatypes --- diffusion approximation --- highly forward scattering of photons --- diffusion and delta-Eddington approximations --- characteristic length and time scales of photon transport --- n/a

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Geophysical, environmental, and urban fluid flows (i.e., flows developing in oceans, seas, estuaries, rivers, aquifers, reservoirs, etc.) exhibit a wide range of reactive and transport processes. Therefore, identifying key phenomena, understanding their relative importance, and establishing causal relationships between them is no trivial task. Analysis of primitive variables (e.g., velocity components, pressure, temperature, concentration) is not always conducive to the most fruitful interpretations. Examining auxiliary variables introduced for diagnostic purposes is an option worth considering. In this respect, tracer and timescale methods are proving to be very effective. Such methods can help address questions such as, "where does a fluid-born dissolved or particulate substance come from and where will it go?" or, "how fast are the transport and reaction phenomena controlling the appearance and disappearance such substances?" These issues have been dealt with since the 19th century, essentially by means of ad hoc approaches. However, over the past three decades, methods resting on solid theoretical foundations have been developed, which permit the evaluation of tracer concentrations and diagnostic timescales (age, residence/exposure time, etc.) across space and time and using numerical models and field data. This book comprises research and review articles, introducing state-of-the-art diagnostic theories and their applications to domains ranging from shallow human-made reservoirs to lakes, river networks, marine domains, and subsurface flows

residence time --- Three Gorges Reservoir --- tributary bay --- density current --- water level regulation --- marina --- water renewal --- transport timescales --- return-flow --- macro-tidal --- wind influence --- floating structures --- San Francisco Estuary --- Sacramento–San Joaquin Delta --- water age --- transport time scales --- hydrodynamic model --- tidal hydrodynamics --- stable isotopes --- reactive tracers --- tailor-made tracer design --- hydrogeological tracer test --- kinetics --- partitioning --- Mahakam Delta --- age --- exposure time --- return coefficient --- CART --- source water fingerprinting --- floodplain --- turbulence --- ADCP measurement --- wave bias --- Reynolds stress --- transport process --- passive tracers --- terrestrial dissolved substances --- Pearl River Estuary --- shallow lake --- meteorological influence --- sub-basins --- Delft3D --- partial differential equations --- boundary conditions --- geophysical and environmental fluid flows --- reactive transport --- interpretation methods --- diagnostic timescales --- age distribution function --- radionuclide --- tracer --- data collection --- antimony 125 (125Sb) --- tritium (3H) --- dispersion --- modeling --- English Channel --- North Sea --- Biscay Bay --- timescale --- transport --- hydrodynamic --- ecological --- biogeochemical --- coastal --- estuary --- flushing time --- shallow reservoir --- numerical modeling --- Lagrangian transport modelling --- coupled wave–ocean models --- ocean drifters --- wave-induced processes --- model skills --- n/a --- Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta --- coupled wave-ocean models

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Mathematical models have been frequently studied in recent decades, in order to obtain the deeper properties of real-world problems. In particular, if these problems, such as finance, soliton theory and health problems, as well as problems arising in applied science and so on, affect humans from all over the world, studying such problems is inevitable. In this sense, the first step in understanding such problems is the mathematical forms. This comes from modeling events observed in various fields of science, such as physics, chemistry, mechanics, electricity, biology, economy, mathematical applications, and control theory. Moreover, research done involving fractional ordinary or partial differential equations and other relevant topics relating to integer order have attracted the attention of experts from all over the world. Various methods have been presented and developed to solve such models numerically and analytically. Extracted results are generally in the form of numerical solutions, analytical solutions, approximate solutions and periodic properties. With the help of newly developed computational systems, experts have investigated and modeled such problems. Moreover, their graphical simulations have also been presented in the literature. Their graphical simulations, such as 2D, 3D and contour figures, have also been investigated to obtain more and deeper properties of the real world problem.

Technology: general issues --- fractional kinetic equation --- Riemann-Liouville fractional integral operator --- incomplete I-functions --- Laplace transform --- fractional differential equations --- fractional generalized biologic population --- Sumudu transform --- Adomian decomposition method --- Caputo fractional derivative --- operator theory --- time scales --- integral inequalities --- Burgers' equation --- reproducing kernel method --- error estimate --- Dirichlet and Neumann boundary conditions --- Caputo derivative --- Laplace transforms --- constant proportional Caputo derivative --- modeling --- Volterra-type fractional integro-differential equation --- Hilfer fractional derivative --- Lorenzo-Hartely function --- generalized Lauricella confluent hypergeometric function --- Elazki transform --- caputo fractional derivative --- predator-prey model --- harvesting rate --- stability analysis --- equilibrium point --- implicit discretization numerical scheme --- the (m + 1/G')-expansion method --- the (2+1)-dimensional hyperbolic nonlinear Schrödinger equation --- periodic and singular complex wave solutions --- traveling waves solutions --- chaotic finance --- fractional calculus --- Atangana-Baleanu derivative --- uniqueness of the solution --- fixed point theory --- shifted Legendre polynomials --- variable coefficient --- three-point boundary value problem --- modified alpha equation --- Bernoulli sub-equation function method --- rational function solution --- complex solution --- contour surface --- variable exponent --- fractional integral --- maximal operator --- fractional kinetic equation --- Riemann-Liouville fractional integral operator --- incomplete I-functions --- Laplace transform --- fractional differential equations --- fractional generalized biologic population --- Sumudu transform --- Adomian decomposition method --- Caputo fractional derivative --- operator theory --- time scales --- integral inequalities --- Burgers' equation --- reproducing kernel method --- error estimate --- Dirichlet and Neumann boundary conditions --- Caputo derivative --- Laplace transforms --- constant proportional Caputo derivative --- modeling --- Volterra-type fractional integro-differential equation --- Hilfer fractional derivative --- Lorenzo-Hartely function --- generalized Lauricella confluent hypergeometric function --- Elazki transform --- caputo fractional derivative --- predator-prey model --- harvesting rate --- stability analysis --- equilibrium point --- implicit discretization numerical scheme --- the (m + 1/G')-expansion method --- the (2+1)-dimensional hyperbolic nonlinear Schrödinger equation --- periodic and singular complex wave solutions --- traveling waves solutions --- chaotic finance --- fractional calculus --- Atangana-Baleanu derivative --- uniqueness of the solution --- fixed point theory --- shifted Legendre polynomials --- variable coefficient --- three-point boundary value problem --- modified alpha equation --- Bernoulli sub-equation function method --- rational function solution --- complex solution --- contour surface --- variable exponent --- fractional integral --- maximal operator