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Background: Historical accounts of psychiatric classifications have hitherto been written in terms of a 'received view'. This contains two assumptions, that: (i) the activity of classifying is inherent to the human mind; and (ii) psychiatric 'phenomena' are stable natural objects. Objectives: The aim of this article is to provide an outline of the evolution of psychiatric classifications from the perspective of conceptual history. This is defined as a theoretical and empirical inquiry into the principles, sortal techniques and contexts in which alienists carried out their task. It assumes that all psychiatric classifications are cultural products, and endeavours to answer the question of whether classificatory models imported from the natural sciences can be applied to man-made constructs (such as mental illness) definitionally based on 'personalised semantics'. Methods: Exemplars of classificatory activity are first mapped and contextualised. Then, it is suggested that in each historical period crafting classifications has been like playing a game of chess with each move being governed by rules. This is illustrated by offering an analysis of the 1860-1861 French debate on classification. Results and Conclusions: (1) Medicine is not a contemplative but a modificatory activity and hence classifications are only valuable if they can release new information about the object classified. (2) It should not be inferred from the fact that psychiatric classifications are not working well (i.e. that they only behave as actuarial devices) that they must be given up. Conceptual work needs to continue to identify 'invariants' (i.e. stable elements that anchor classifications to 'nature'. (3) Because mental disorders are more than unstable behavioural epiphenomena wrapped around stable molecular changes, 'neurobiological' invariants may not do. Stability depends upon time frames. Furthermore, it is unlikely that gene-based classifications will ever be considered as classifications of mental disorders. For once, they would have low predictive power because of their lack of information about the defining codes of mental illness. 'Social' and 'psychological' invariants have problems of their own.

Activity. --- Analysis. --- Classification. --- Disorder. --- Evolution. --- History. --- Human. --- Illness. --- Medicine. --- Method. --- Model. --- Models. --- Natural. --- Need. --- Needs. --- Object. --- Objects. --- Psychiatric classification. --- Psychiatry. --- Release. --- Social. --- Task. --- Time. --- Work.

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The brain sciences are influencing our understanding of human behavior as never before, from neuropsychiatry and neuroeconomics to neurotheology and neuroaesthetics. Many now believe that the brain is what makes us human, and it seems that neuroscientists are poised to become the new experts in the management of human conduct. Neuro describes the key developments--theoretical, technological, economic, and biopolitical--that have enabled the neurosciences to gain such traction outside the laboratory. It explores the ways neurobiological conceptions of personhood are influencing everything from child rearing to criminal justice, and are transforming the ways we "know ourselves" as human beings. In this emerging neuro-ontology, we are not "determined" by our neurobiology: on the contrary, it appears that we can and should seek to improve ourselves by understanding and acting on our brains. Neuro examines the implications of this emerging trend, weighing the promises against the perils, and evaluating some widely held concerns about a neurobiological "colonization" of the social and human sciences. Despite identifying many exaggerated claims and premature promises, Neuro argues that the openness provided by the new styles of thought taking shape in neuroscience, with its contemporary conceptions of the neuromolecular, plastic, and social brain, could make possible a new and productive engagement between the social and brain sciences. Copyright note: Reproduction, including downloading of Joan Miro works is prohibited by copyright laws and international conventions without the express written permission of Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York. ?

Neuropsychology. --- Neurophysiology --- Psychophysiology --- Neuropsychology --- brein --- hersenen --- neurowetenschappen --- Brain --- Neurosciences --- cerveaux --- neurosciences --- methods --- physiopathology --- Neuropsychologie --- Cognitive psychology --- amygdala. --- animal experiments. --- animal models. --- artificiality. --- behavioral research. --- biological processes. --- brain activation. --- brain function. --- brain imaging data. --- brain imaging. --- brain science. --- brain size. --- brain structure. --- clinical medicine. --- cognition. --- criminal conduct. --- criminal justice system. --- emotion. --- environmental influences. --- evolution. --- functional brain imaging. --- gene expression. --- genomics. --- human antisocial behavior. --- human behavior. --- human brain. --- human cognition. --- human sciences. --- mental illness. --- mental life. --- mental processes. --- mental states. --- molecules. --- mouse brain. --- nerve development. --- nervous system. --- neural activity. --- neural mechanisms. --- neuroaesthetics. --- neurobiological evidence. --- neurobiological self. --- neurobiology. --- neuroeconomics. --- neuromolecular brain. --- neuron regeneration. --- neuronal circuits. --- neuropsychiatry. --- neuroscience. --- neurotheology. --- orbital frontal cortex. --- plastic brain. --- plasticity. --- psychiatric classification. --- psychiatric diagnosis. --- psychiatric disorders. --- psychiatric research. --- psychiatry. --- psychology. --- reductionist approach. --- risk assessment. --- risk management. --- risk reduction. --- self-management. --- self-understanding. --- selfhood. --- social brain hypothesis. --- social brain. --- social groups. --- social sciences. --- sociality. --- somatic individuality. --- synaptic plasticity. --- temporal cortex. --- volition.

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"Grapples with the legacy of Jerome Wakefield, one of the most influential critics of modern psychiatry and the use of the DSM for psychiatric diagnosis"--

Psychiatry --- Mental ilness --- Mental illness --- Philosophy. --- Diagnosis. --- Wakefield, Jerome C. --- Psychology, Pathological --- Nosology --- Psychiatric diagnosis --- Psychodiagnostics --- disorder --- dysfunction --- harm --- Wakefield --- Diagnostic and Statistical Manual DSM --- function --- Harmful Dysfunction Analysis --- Mental disorder --- Evolution --- DSM --- Critics --- Spitzer --- distress --- disability --- harmful consequence --- dysfunction requirement --- Experimental philosophy --- proper function --- Theories of mental disorder --- theory-neutral --- conceptual analysis --- armchair --- Pluralism --- intuitions --- Clinical practice --- concept of disorder --- Haslam --- constructs --- Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder --- definition --- psychiatric classification --- Quine --- biological design --- naturally selected disorder --- environment mismatch --- Essentialism --- open concept --- construct validation --- latent variables --- imperfect community --- neo-empiricism --- decline in functioning --- Szasz --- network theory --- Stipulation --- meaning analysis --- abnormality --- Selected-effect --- causal-role --- Boorse --- descriptive --- natural kinds --- Cummins --- intuition --- Mechanistic explanation --- perspectival --- coherence --- Developmental mechanism --- developmental mismatch --- adaptation --- Evolutionary mismatch --- modal mismatch --- depression --- fever --- lactose intolerance --- Neander --- proximal-function --- distal function --- conduct disorder --- developmental disruption --- Low-level mechanisms --- salience system --- dopamine regulation --- aberrant valuation --- delusions --- adaptationism --- cognitive neuroscience --- mechanical-causal analysis --- belief fixation --- syndrome --- Autism --- modules --- ontogeny --- neurodiversity --- Reductionism --- naturalism --- Wittgenstein-Kripke paradox --- normative --- failure --- indeterminacy --- variation --- detrimental consequences --- individual values --- directindirect harm --- clinical significance criter --- Classification.