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The air we breathe is twenty-one percent oxygen, an amount higher than on any other known world. While we may take our air for granted, Earth was not always an oxygenated planet. How did it become this way? Donald Canfield-one of the world's leading authorities on geochemistry, earth history, and the early oceans-covers this vast history, emphasizing its relationship to the evolution of life and the evolving chemistry of the Earth. Canfield guides readers through the various lines of scientific evidence, considers some of the wrong turns and dead ends along the way, and highlights the scientists and researchers who have made key discoveries in the field. Showing how Earth's atmosphere developed over time, Oxygen takes readers on a remarkable journey through the history of the oxygenation of our planet.Some images inside the book are unavailable due to digital copyright restrictions.

Oxygen. --- Oxygen --- Archean Eon. --- Avalon Peninsula. --- Dolf Seilacher. --- Earth. --- Ediacaran Fauna. --- Lomagundi isotope excursion. --- Phanerozoic Eon. --- Vladimir Vernadsky. --- anoxygenic phototrophic organisms. --- atmosphere. --- atmospheric oxygen. --- biomass decomposition. --- biosphere. --- cells. --- chemical evidence. --- chemistry. --- chlorophyll. --- cyanobacteria. --- early Earth. --- energy. --- evolution. --- evolutionary history. --- fossils. --- geologic time. --- great oxidation event. --- life. --- mantle. --- methanogenesis. --- organic matter. --- oxygen concentration. --- oxygen production. --- oxygen-producing organisms. --- oxygen. --- oxygenation. --- oxygenic photosynthesis. --- photosynthesis. --- planet Earth. --- plate tectonics. --- pyrite oxidation. --- rapid recycling. --- sulfate reduction. --- sulfide. --- tectonics. --- water. --- weathering.

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This Special Issue consists of fourteen original scientific articles concerning different problems associated with the water quality of freshwater ecosystems in a temperate climate. Most of the articles deal with the relationship between water quality and the structure of ecosystem biocenoses. The conclusion of these articles confirms the fact that the deterioration of water quality has a direct impact on the quantitative and qualitative structure of biocenoses. This is accompanied by a decline in biodiversity and the disappearance of rare plant and animal species. They also draw attention to the particular importance of internal physical and chemical differentiation within the aquatic ecosystem, both in horizontal and vertical dimensions. The problem of ensuring proper ecological conditions and good quality of water in freshwater aquatic ecosystems is also raised, and various methods for the restoration of water bodies are presented. This Special Issue contributes to a better understanding of the causes of water quality deterioration, the mechanisms responsible for the functioning of ecosystems, including the decrease of biodiversity and the possibilities of improving their condition. Thus, it can be helpful for regaining the good ecological status of water bodies required by the Water Framework Directive.

Research & information: general --- biomanipulation --- chlorophyll-a --- hypolimnion aeration --- nutrients --- phosphorus inactivation --- invertebrates --- hydrological regime --- diversity --- water bodies --- water quality --- strontium isotopes --- springs --- meromictic lake --- eutrophication --- catchment --- nutrient load --- agriculture --- European Water Framework Directive --- shallow lake --- stratified lake --- functional groups of phytoplankton --- innovative method of restoration --- oxygenation near the bottom sediments --- phytoplankton biomass --- restoration treatment --- small lake --- sustainable restoration --- rotifers --- microcrustaceans --- aquatic vegetation --- small water bodies --- human-induced impact --- ecological assessment --- macroinvertebrates --- zooplankton --- anthropogenic impact --- stream ecology --- riverbed regulation --- soft water lake --- Lobelia dortmanna --- Littorella uniflora --- Isoëtes lacustris --- human impact --- cyanobacteria --- Daphnia --- harmful algal bloom mitigation --- phytoplankton --- reactive oxygen specie --- water level fluctuation --- multi-proxy approach --- Cladocera --- Chironomidae --- diatoms --- Northern Europe --- West Africa --- climate change --- rainfall variability --- riverbanks --- floodplain lakes --- Carabidae --- stenotopic species --- assemblage --- overgrown --- surface microlayer --- phytoneuston --- metals --- urban water body --- ciliate assemblages --- oxygen concentration --- ecological optimum --- lake --- freshwater habitats --- biodiversity --- aquatic plants --- plankton assemblages --- water cycle --- freshwater ecosystems restoration

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This Special Issue consists of fourteen original scientific articles concerning different problems associated with the water quality of freshwater ecosystems in a temperate climate. Most of the articles deal with the relationship between water quality and the structure of ecosystem biocenoses. The conclusion of these articles confirms the fact that the deterioration of water quality has a direct impact on the quantitative and qualitative structure of biocenoses. This is accompanied by a decline in biodiversity and the disappearance of rare plant and animal species. They also draw attention to the particular importance of internal physical and chemical differentiation within the aquatic ecosystem, both in horizontal and vertical dimensions. The problem of ensuring proper ecological conditions and good quality of water in freshwater aquatic ecosystems is also raised, and various methods for the restoration of water bodies are presented. This Special Issue contributes to a better understanding of the causes of water quality deterioration, the mechanisms responsible for the functioning of ecosystems, including the decrease of biodiversity and the possibilities of improving their condition. Thus, it can be helpful for regaining the good ecological status of water bodies required by the Water Framework Directive.

Research & information: general --- biomanipulation --- chlorophyll-a --- hypolimnion aeration --- nutrients --- phosphorus inactivation --- invertebrates --- hydrological regime --- diversity --- water bodies --- water quality --- strontium isotopes --- springs --- meromictic lake --- eutrophication --- catchment --- nutrient load --- agriculture --- European Water Framework Directive --- shallow lake --- stratified lake --- functional groups of phytoplankton --- innovative method of restoration --- oxygenation near the bottom sediments --- phytoplankton biomass --- restoration treatment --- small lake --- sustainable restoration --- rotifers --- microcrustaceans --- aquatic vegetation --- small water bodies --- human-induced impact --- ecological assessment --- macroinvertebrates --- zooplankton --- anthropogenic impact --- stream ecology --- riverbed regulation --- soft water lake --- Lobelia dortmanna --- Littorella uniflora --- Isoëtes lacustris --- human impact --- cyanobacteria --- Daphnia --- harmful algal bloom mitigation --- phytoplankton --- reactive oxygen specie --- water level fluctuation --- multi-proxy approach --- Cladocera --- Chironomidae --- diatoms --- Northern Europe --- West Africa --- climate change --- rainfall variability --- riverbanks --- floodplain lakes --- Carabidae --- stenotopic species --- assemblage --- overgrown --- surface microlayer --- phytoneuston --- metals --- urban water body --- ciliate assemblages --- oxygen concentration --- ecological optimum --- lake --- freshwater habitats --- biodiversity --- aquatic plants --- plankton assemblages --- water cycle --- freshwater ecosystems restoration --- biomanipulation --- chlorophyll-a --- hypolimnion aeration --- nutrients --- phosphorus inactivation --- invertebrates --- hydrological regime --- diversity --- water bodies --- water quality --- strontium isotopes --- springs --- meromictic lake --- eutrophication --- catchment --- nutrient load --- agriculture --- European Water Framework Directive --- shallow lake --- stratified lake --- functional groups of phytoplankton --- innovative method of restoration --- oxygenation near the bottom sediments --- phytoplankton biomass --- restoration treatment --- small lake --- sustainable restoration --- rotifers --- microcrustaceans --- aquatic vegetation --- small water bodies --- human-induced impact --- ecological assessment --- macroinvertebrates --- zooplankton --- anthropogenic impact --- stream ecology --- riverbed regulation --- soft water lake --- Lobelia dortmanna --- Littorella uniflora --- Isoëtes lacustris --- human impact --- cyanobacteria --- Daphnia --- harmful algal bloom mitigation --- phytoplankton --- reactive oxygen specie --- water level fluctuation --- multi-proxy approach --- Cladocera --- Chironomidae --- diatoms --- Northern Europe --- West Africa --- climate change --- rainfall variability --- riverbanks --- floodplain lakes --- Carabidae --- stenotopic species --- assemblage --- overgrown --- surface microlayer --- phytoneuston --- metals --- urban water body --- ciliate assemblages --- oxygen concentration --- ecological optimum --- lake --- freshwater habitats --- biodiversity --- aquatic plants --- plankton assemblages --- water cycle --- freshwater ecosystems restoration

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This book consists of original and review papers which describe basic and applied studies for the modifications of metallic and inorganic materials by using energetic ion/electron beams. When materials are irradiated with energetic charged particles (ions /electrons), their energies are transferred to electrons and atoms in materials, and the lattice structures of the materials are largely changed to metastable or non-thermal-equilibrium states, modifying several physical properties. Such phenomena will engage the interest of researchers as a basic science, and can also be used as promising tools for adding new functionalities to existing materials and for the development of novel materials. The papers in this book cover the ion/electron-beam-induced modifications of several properties (optical, electronic, magnetic, mechanical, and chemical properties) and lattice structures. This book will, therefore, be useful for many scientists and engineers who have been involved in fundamental material science and the industrial applications of metallic and inorganic materials.

Research & information: general --- swift heavy ion --- YAG (Y3Al5O12) --- refractive index profiling --- synergy effect --- optical waveguide --- hillocks --- ion tracks --- ion irradiation --- TEM --- vanadium alloy --- irradiation hardening --- radiation damage --- electron irradiation --- metal surface --- sputtering --- groove --- hole --- self-organization --- pattern --- laser photocathode --- pulsed electron sources --- pulsed transmission electron microscope --- ion beam --- copper oxide --- chromatic change --- photoemission spectrum --- beam viewer --- light water reactor --- zirconium alloys --- nuclear fuel cladding --- thermal desorption spectroscopy --- transmission electron microscopy --- high energy irradiation --- ion track overlapping --- oxides --- Monte Carlo simulation for two-dimensional images --- lattice structures and magnetic states --- binomial and Poisson distribution functions --- ion accelerators at WERC --- irradiation effects on space electronics --- single event --- total ionization dose --- displacement damage --- solar cell --- space application --- irradiation test --- beam condition --- degradation --- standardization --- ISO --- high-Tc superconductors --- critical current density --- flux pinning --- heavy-ion irradiation --- columnar defects --- anisotropy --- superconductor --- irradiation --- critical current --- cerium oxide --- CeO2 --- swift heavy ions --- phase transition --- partially stabilized zirconia --- XRD --- radiation simulation --- ion-track etching --- electrodeposition --- micro/nano-sized metal cones --- template synthesis --- electrocatalyst --- excited reaction field --- transmission electron microscope --- nanomaterials --- manipulation --- nanostructure --- Al --- Al2O3 --- accelerator-driven system (ADS) --- liquid metal corrosion (LMC) --- lead-bismuth eutectic (LBE) --- self-ion irradiation --- oxygen concentration in LBE --- irradiation effect on corrosion behavior --- electronic excitation --- lattice disordering --- electron-lattice coupling --- nanopore structure --- ceria --- molecular dynamics --- simulation --- structural analysis --- defects --- swift heavy ion --- YAG (Y3Al5O12) --- refractive index profiling --- synergy effect --- optical waveguide --- hillocks --- ion tracks --- ion irradiation --- TEM --- vanadium alloy --- irradiation hardening --- radiation damage --- electron irradiation --- metal surface --- sputtering --- groove --- hole --- self-organization --- pattern --- laser photocathode --- pulsed electron sources --- pulsed transmission electron microscope --- ion beam --- copper oxide --- chromatic change --- photoemission spectrum --- beam viewer --- light water reactor --- zirconium alloys --- nuclear fuel cladding --- thermal desorption spectroscopy --- transmission electron microscopy --- high energy irradiation --- ion track overlapping --- oxides --- Monte Carlo simulation for two-dimensional images --- lattice structures and magnetic states --- binomial and Poisson distribution functions --- ion accelerators at WERC --- irradiation effects on space electronics --- single event --- total ionization dose --- displacement damage --- solar cell --- space application --- irradiation test --- beam condition --- degradation --- standardization --- ISO --- high-Tc superconductors --- critical current density --- flux pinning --- heavy-ion irradiation --- columnar defects --- anisotropy --- superconductor --- irradiation --- critical current --- cerium oxide --- CeO2 --- swift heavy ions --- phase transition --- partially stabilized zirconia --- XRD --- radiation simulation --- ion-track etching --- electrodeposition --- micro/nano-sized metal cones --- template synthesis --- electrocatalyst --- excited reaction field --- transmission electron microscope --- nanomaterials --- manipulation --- nanostructure --- Al --- Al2O3 --- accelerator-driven system (ADS) --- liquid metal corrosion (LMC) --- lead-bismuth eutectic (LBE) --- self-ion irradiation --- oxygen concentration in LBE --- irradiation effect on corrosion behavior --- electronic excitation --- lattice disordering --- electron-lattice coupling --- nanopore structure --- ceria --- molecular dynamics --- simulation --- structural analysis --- defects

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This Special Issue, consisting of 14 papers, presents the latest findings concerning both numerical and experimental investigations. Their aim is to achieve a reduction in pollutant emissions, as well as an improvement in fuel economy and performance, for internal combustion engines. This will provide readers with a comprehensive, unbiased, and scientifically sound overview of the most recent research and technological developments in this field. More specific topics include: 3D CFD detailed analysis of the fuel injection, combustion and exhaust aftertreatments processes, 1D and 0D, semi-empirical, neural network-based control-oriented models, experimental analysis and the optimization of both conventional and innovative combustion processes.

History of engineering & technology --- homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) --- exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) --- dual-fuel --- dimethyl ether (DME) --- exhaust emission --- co-combustion --- dual fuel --- combustion stability --- coefficient of variation of IMEP --- probability density of IMEP --- 0D model --- predictive model --- tumble --- turbulent intensity --- spark-ignition engine --- engine geometry --- AdBlue® injection --- large eddy simulation --- Eulerian–Lagrangian approach --- thermal decomposition --- wall–film formation --- conversion efficiency --- hybrid electric vehicle --- real driving emissions --- fuel consumption --- vehicle performance --- electric supercharger --- Lambda-1 engine --- 48 V Mild Hybrid --- electrically assisted turbocharger --- variable geometry turbocharger-exhaust gas recirculation --- oxygen concentration --- active disturbance rejection control --- model-based --- control --- diesel engine --- ANN --- physics-based model --- semi-empirical model --- CNG --- diesel fuel --- dual fuel engine --- rate of heat release --- ignition delay --- burn duration --- exhaust gas emission --- camless --- electromagnetic variable valve train --- magnetorheological buffer --- soft landing --- solenoid injectors --- indirect-acting piezoelectric injectors --- direct-acting piezoelectric injectors --- engine-out emissions --- combustion noise --- diesel engines --- pollutant emission reduction --- mixing process --- advanced injection strategy --- varying injection rate --- engine torque estimation --- GDI engines --- extended state observer --- online performance --- torque --- nitrogen oxide emissions --- model-based control --- engines --- numerical simulation --- pollutant emissions prediction --- computational fluid dynamics