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Multi-item surveys are frequently used to study scores on latent factors, like human values, attitudes and behavior. Such studies often include a comparison, between specific groups of individuals, either at one or multiple points in time. If such latent factor means are to be meaningfully compared, the measurement structures including the latent factor and their survey items should be stable across groups and/or over time, that is ‘invariant’. Recent developments in statistics have provided new analytical tools for assessing measurement invariance (MI). The aim of this special issue is to provide a forum for a discussion of MI, covering some crucial ‘themes’: (1) ways to assess and deal with measurement non-invariance; (2) Bayesian and IRT methods employing the concept of approximate measurement invariance; and (3) new or adjusted approaches for testing MI to fit increasingly complex statistical models and specific characteristics of survey data. The special issue started with a kick-off meeting where all potential contributors shared ideas on potential papers. This expert workshop was organized at Utrecht University in The Netherlands and was funded by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO-VENI-451-11-008). After the kick-off meeting the authors submitted their papers, all of which were reviewed by experts in the field. The papers in the eBook are listed in alphabetical order, but in the editorial the papers are introduced thematically. Although it is impossible to cover all areas of relevant research in the field of MI, papers in this eBook provide insight on important aspects of measurement invariance. We hope that the discussions included in this special issue will stimulate further research on MI and facilitate further discussions to support the understanding of the role of MI in multi-item surveys.

Non-invariance --- Partial Invariance --- Structural Equation Modeling --- bayesian statistics --- cross national surveys --- Measurement invariance --- Approximate invariance --- multiple group analysis

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Multi-item surveys are frequently used to study scores on latent factors, like human values, attitudes and behavior. Such studies often include a comparison, between specific groups of individuals, either at one or multiple points in time. If such latent factor means are to be meaningfully compared, the measurement structures including the latent factor and their survey items should be stable across groups and/or over time, that is ‘invariant’. Recent developments in statistics have provided new analytical tools for assessing measurement invariance (MI). The aim of this special issue is to provide a forum for a discussion of MI, covering some crucial ‘themes’: (1) ways to assess and deal with measurement non-invariance; (2) Bayesian and IRT methods employing the concept of approximate measurement invariance; and (3) new or adjusted approaches for testing MI to fit increasingly complex statistical models and specific characteristics of survey data. The special issue started with a kick-off meeting where all potential contributors shared ideas on potential papers. This expert workshop was organized at Utrecht University in The Netherlands and was funded by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO-VENI-451-11-008). After the kick-off meeting the authors submitted their papers, all of which were reviewed by experts in the field. The papers in the eBook are listed in alphabetical order, but in the editorial the papers are introduced thematically. Although it is impossible to cover all areas of relevant research in the field of MI, papers in this eBook provide insight on important aspects of measurement invariance. We hope that the discussions included in this special issue will stimulate further research on MI and facilitate further discussions to support the understanding of the role of MI in multi-item surveys.

Non-invariance --- Partial Invariance --- Structural Equation Modeling --- bayesian statistics --- cross national surveys --- Measurement invariance --- Approximate invariance --- multiple group analysis

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This eBook is a collection of articles from a Frontiers Research Topic. Frontiers Research Topics are very popular trademarks of the Frontiers Journals Series: they are collections of at least ten articles, all centered on a particular subject. With their unique mix of varied contributions from Original Research to Review Articles, Frontiers Research Topics unify the most influential researchers, the latest key findings and historical advances in a hot research area! Find out more on how to host your own Frontiers Research Topic or contribute to one as an author by contacting the Frontiers Editorial Office: frontiersin.org/about/contact

Science: general issues --- Psychology --- structural equating modeling --- Measurement invariance (MI) --- Multilevel (ML) --- Mediation --- Moderation --- meta analysis --- effect size --- Complex data --- Estimation --- carryover effect --- structural equating modeling --- Measurement invariance (MI) --- Multilevel (ML) --- Mediation --- Moderation --- meta analysis --- effect size --- Complex data --- Estimation --- carryover effect

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Entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship have become a vehicle that offers solutions for social, environmental, and economic problems. Even though the level of entrepreneurial activity and its diversity have been motivated through public policies, social support has also played an important role in encouraging people to think of entrepreneurship as a desirable career choice. This book brings together analyses of those elements required for entrepreneurial and intrapreneurial intention and action, which ultimately become important leverages of development. Chapters highlight the importance of rural, urban, university, organizational, and family environments for a bunch of intentions and behaviors such as green, sport, social, corporate, innovative, traditional, and gender entrepreneurship. This entrepreneurial diversity is translated into higher development through the empowerment of women, environmental consciousness, and efficient production. Policymakers, scholars, and practitioners can find different examples and cases useful for decision-making, learning, and practice in this book.

Technology: general issues --- entrepreneurial intention --- attitude --- social norm --- subjective personal variables --- motivation --- beliefs --- values --- entrepreneurial team --- cognition characteristics --- behavior characteristics --- venture performance --- sustainable entrepreneurship --- tourism students --- gender comparison --- Innovation --- DEA Methodology --- Relative efficiency --- green entrepreneurship --- sustainable entrepreneurial activity --- culture --- institutional approach --- developing countries --- Saudi Arabia --- soccer --- football --- innovation --- entrepreneurship --- bibliometric analysis --- performance --- entrepreneurial intentions --- self-employment --- entrepreneurship education --- entrepreneurial family background --- entrepreneurial personality traits --- students --- hierarchical multiple regression analysis --- ecotourism --- women entrepreneurship --- self-determination theory --- psychological empowerment --- flourishing --- growth mindset --- social entrepreneurial intention --- social entrepreneurship --- COVID-19 --- theory of planned behavior --- time in self-employment --- gender --- regional development --- rural and urban areas --- age --- UK --- administrative process --- community-based tourism enterprises --- financial process --- tourism enterprises --- SMEs --- entrepreneurial orientation --- IMC capability --- organizational performance --- competitive advantage --- inter-country analysis --- entrepreneurial competencies --- sustainability --- higher education --- entrepreneurial university --- organisational change --- entrepreneurial mindset --- college students --- engineering --- educational experience --- measurement invariance --- latent mean comparisons --- institutions --- intrapreneurship --- national growth --- firm growth --- economic development --- social change --- gender equality

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Entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship have become a vehicle that offers solutions for social, environmental, and economic problems. Even though the level of entrepreneurial activity and its diversity have been motivated through public policies, social support has also played an important role in encouraging people to think of entrepreneurship as a desirable career choice. This book brings together analyses of those elements required for entrepreneurial and intrapreneurial intention and action, which ultimately become important leverages of development. Chapters highlight the importance of rural, urban, university, organizational, and family environments for a bunch of intentions and behaviors such as green, sport, social, corporate, innovative, traditional, and gender entrepreneurship. This entrepreneurial diversity is translated into higher development through the empowerment of women, environmental consciousness, and efficient production. Policymakers, scholars, and practitioners can find different examples and cases useful for decision-making, learning, and practice in this book.

Technology: general issues --- entrepreneurial intention --- attitude --- social norm --- subjective personal variables --- motivation --- beliefs --- values --- entrepreneurial team --- cognition characteristics --- behavior characteristics --- venture performance --- sustainable entrepreneurship --- tourism students --- gender comparison --- Innovation --- DEA Methodology --- Relative efficiency --- green entrepreneurship --- sustainable entrepreneurial activity --- culture --- institutional approach --- developing countries --- Saudi Arabia --- soccer --- football --- innovation --- entrepreneurship --- bibliometric analysis --- performance --- entrepreneurial intentions --- self-employment --- entrepreneurship education --- entrepreneurial family background --- entrepreneurial personality traits --- students --- hierarchical multiple regression analysis --- ecotourism --- women entrepreneurship --- self-determination theory --- psychological empowerment --- flourishing --- growth mindset --- social entrepreneurial intention --- social entrepreneurship --- COVID-19 --- theory of planned behavior --- time in self-employment --- gender --- regional development --- rural and urban areas --- age --- UK --- administrative process --- community-based tourism enterprises --- financial process --- tourism enterprises --- SMEs --- entrepreneurial orientation --- IMC capability --- organizational performance --- competitive advantage --- inter-country analysis --- entrepreneurial competencies --- sustainability --- higher education --- entrepreneurial university --- organisational change --- entrepreneurial mindset --- college students --- engineering --- educational experience --- measurement invariance --- latent mean comparisons --- institutions --- intrapreneurship --- national growth --- firm growth --- economic development --- social change --- gender equality --- entrepreneurial intention --- attitude --- social norm --- subjective personal variables --- motivation --- beliefs --- values --- entrepreneurial team --- cognition characteristics --- behavior characteristics --- venture performance --- sustainable entrepreneurship --- tourism students --- gender comparison --- Innovation --- DEA Methodology --- Relative efficiency --- green entrepreneurship --- sustainable entrepreneurial activity --- culture --- institutional approach --- developing countries --- Saudi Arabia --- soccer --- football --- innovation --- entrepreneurship --- bibliometric analysis --- performance --- entrepreneurial intentions --- self-employment --- entrepreneurship education --- entrepreneurial family background --- entrepreneurial personality traits --- students --- hierarchical multiple regression analysis --- ecotourism --- women entrepreneurship --- self-determination theory --- psychological empowerment --- flourishing --- growth mindset --- social entrepreneurial intention --- social entrepreneurship --- COVID-19 --- theory of planned behavior --- time in self-employment --- gender --- regional development --- rural and urban areas --- age --- UK --- administrative process --- community-based tourism enterprises --- financial process --- tourism enterprises --- SMEs --- entrepreneurial orientation --- IMC capability --- organizational performance --- competitive advantage --- inter-country analysis --- entrepreneurial competencies --- sustainability --- higher education --- entrepreneurial university --- organisational change --- entrepreneurial mindset --- college students --- engineering --- educational experience --- measurement invariance --- latent mean comparisons --- institutions --- intrapreneurship --- national growth --- firm growth --- economic development --- social change --- gender equality