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Depuis plusieurs années, et singulièrement après la crise financière de 2008, les inégalités sont redevenues un thème d'actualité. Des best-sellers internationaux se consacrent à cette question trop longtemps négligée. Des ONG publient des chiffres alarmistes qui illustrent le fossé croissant entre les pauvres, qui paraissent toujours plus nombreux et vulnérables, et les ultra-riches, qui ne savent plus comment dépenser leurs gigantesques fortunes. D'Athènes à Caracas, de Madrid à New York, de Hong Kong à Ouagadougou, les mouvements populaires qui placent la lutte contre les inégalités au cœur de leur programme se multiplient et prennent de l'ampleur. Mais, derrière les slogans, comment appréhender et mesurer précisément ces inégalités qui pèsent de plus en plus sur l'agenda international ? Politiques, économiques, sociales, raciales, culturelles ou sexuelles : comment s'enchevêtrent les différentes facettes des inégalités ? Pourquoi les institutions internationales, elles-mêmes très inégalitaires, échouent presque toujours à atteindre les objectifs qu'elles se sont fixés en matière de « développement » ? Pourquoi l'accès à l'alimentation, au logement, à l'éducation ou à la santé reste-t-il à ce point inégalitaire ? L'injustice ressentie par de nombreuses populations favorise-t-elle les conflits et la violence politique ?
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Institutional integration processes in the post-Soviet area have ended in failure. It proved impossible to transform the Commonwealth of Independent States into an instrument of real co-operation, even though Russia, which was the most interested in integrating the post-Soviet space, made repeated efforts to this end. The CIS never managed to accomplish its declared objectives and, from this point of view, it does not exist as an integration organisation and de facto never did.
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Cross-border supply chains and international trade played a critical role in vaccinating much of the world to address the Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. Considering that experience, this note describes the changes needed to make the World Trade Organization (WTO) a more useful institution during such a public health emergency. It begins by describing the market failures confronting vaccines especially on the supply side, to introduce the domestic subsidies and contracting arrangements needed to accelerate vaccine research and development, and to increase the scale and speed of vaccine production during a pandemic. As an application, it relies on illustrative examples of US subsidies that emerged during COVID-19. However, the challenge confronting policymakers is exacerbated in an environment characterized by cross-border supply chains, making input shortage problems impacting production even worse. Thus, the note highlights the need for new forms of international policy coordination, including initiatives on supply chain transparency, as well as agreements to increase subsidies across countries to jointly scale up vaccine output and input production capacity along the entire supply chain. It concludes that while the WTO was mostly absent this time around, it remains the best-positioned international organization to facilitate these novel forms of international economic policy cooperation.
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Banking --- Banking --- International organizations --- International organizations
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