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This book is a collection of papers that originated as a Special Issue, focused on some recent advances related to fiber Bragg grating-based sensors and systems. Conventionally, this book can be divided into three parts: intelligent systems, new types of sensors, and original interrogators. The intelligent systems presented include evaluation of strain transition properties between cast-in FBGs and cast aluminum during uniaxial straining, multi-point strain measurements on a containment vessel, damage detection methods based on long-gauge FBG for highway bridges, evaluation of a coupled sequential approach for rotorcraft landing simulation, wearable hand modules and real-time tracking algorithms for measuring finger joint angles of different hand sizes, and glaze icing detection of 110 kV composite insulators. New types of sensors are reflected in multi-addressed fiber Bragg structures for microwave–photonic sensor systems, its applications in load-sensing wheel hub bearings, and more complex influence in problems of generation of vortex optical beams based on chiral fiber-optic periodic structures. Original interrogators include research in optical designs with curved detectors for FBG interrogation monitors; demonstration of a filterless, multi-point, and temperature-independent FBG dynamical demodulator using pulse-width modulation; and dual wavelength differential detection of FBG sensors with a pulsed DFB laser.

Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) --- composite insulator with embedded FBGs --- glaze icing --- icing detection --- fiber Bragg grating strain sensor --- algorithm --- hand motion capture --- real-time tracking --- fiber Bragg gratings --- landing simulation --- rotorcraft --- coupled sequential method --- landing structural response --- finite element analysis (FEA) --- microwave-photonic sensor systems --- Fiber Bragg Gratings --- Addressed Fiber Bragg Structures --- Multi-Addressed Fiber Bragg Structures --- long-gauge FBG --- damage detection --- highway bridges --- vehicle–bridge interaction --- comparative study --- fiber Bragg grating --- fiber optic sensor --- dynamic chirp --- DFB laser --- chiral structures --- orbital angular momentum --- apodization --- chirp --- coupled modes theory --- FBG --- PWM --- engine --- high temperature --- ECU --- FBG demodulator --- fiber sensing --- high-speed interrogation --- dynamic strain --- microwave photonic sensor system --- numerical simulation --- addressed fiber Bragg structures --- load-sensing bearings --- vehicle dynamics control --- Fibre Bragg Gratings --- neutron diffraction --- X-ray tomography --- tensile test --- fiber Bragg grating sensors --- spectrograph --- high angular dispersion --- curved detectors --- freeform optics

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This book is a collection of papers that originated as a Special Issue, focused on some recent advances related to fiber Bragg grating-based sensors and systems. Conventionally, this book can be divided into three parts: intelligent systems, new types of sensors, and original interrogators. The intelligent systems presented include evaluation of strain transition properties between cast-in FBGs and cast aluminum during uniaxial straining, multi-point strain measurements on a containment vessel, damage detection methods based on long-gauge FBG for highway bridges, evaluation of a coupled sequential approach for rotorcraft landing simulation, wearable hand modules and real-time tracking algorithms for measuring finger joint angles of different hand sizes, and glaze icing detection of 110 kV composite insulators. New types of sensors are reflected in multi-addressed fiber Bragg structures for microwave–photonic sensor systems, its applications in load-sensing wheel hub bearings, and more complex influence in problems of generation of vortex optical beams based on chiral fiber-optic periodic structures. Original interrogators include research in optical designs with curved detectors for FBG interrogation monitors; demonstration of a filterless, multi-point, and temperature-independent FBG dynamical demodulator using pulse-width modulation; and dual wavelength differential detection of FBG sensors with a pulsed DFB laser.

Research & information: general --- Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) --- composite insulator with embedded FBGs --- glaze icing --- icing detection --- fiber Bragg grating strain sensor --- algorithm --- hand motion capture --- real-time tracking --- fiber Bragg gratings --- landing simulation --- rotorcraft --- coupled sequential method --- landing structural response --- finite element analysis (FEA) --- microwave-photonic sensor systems --- Fiber Bragg Gratings --- Addressed Fiber Bragg Structures --- Multi-Addressed Fiber Bragg Structures --- long-gauge FBG --- damage detection --- highway bridges --- vehicle–bridge interaction --- comparative study --- fiber Bragg grating --- fiber optic sensor --- dynamic chirp --- DFB laser --- chiral structures --- orbital angular momentum --- apodization --- chirp --- coupled modes theory --- FBG --- PWM --- engine --- high temperature --- ECU --- FBG demodulator --- fiber sensing --- high-speed interrogation --- dynamic strain --- microwave photonic sensor system --- numerical simulation --- addressed fiber Bragg structures --- load-sensing bearings --- vehicle dynamics control --- Fibre Bragg Gratings --- neutron diffraction --- X-ray tomography --- tensile test --- fiber Bragg grating sensors --- spectrograph --- high angular dispersion --- curved detectors --- freeform optics --- Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) --- composite insulator with embedded FBGs --- glaze icing --- icing detection --- fiber Bragg grating strain sensor --- algorithm --- hand motion capture --- real-time tracking --- fiber Bragg gratings --- landing simulation --- rotorcraft --- coupled sequential method --- landing structural response --- finite element analysis (FEA) --- microwave-photonic sensor systems --- Fiber Bragg Gratings --- Addressed Fiber Bragg Structures --- Multi-Addressed Fiber Bragg Structures --- long-gauge FBG --- damage detection --- highway bridges --- vehicle–bridge interaction --- comparative study --- fiber Bragg grating --- fiber optic sensor --- dynamic chirp --- DFB laser --- chiral structures --- orbital angular momentum --- apodization --- chirp --- coupled modes theory --- FBG --- PWM --- engine --- high temperature --- ECU --- FBG demodulator --- fiber sensing --- high-speed interrogation --- dynamic strain --- microwave photonic sensor system --- numerical simulation --- addressed fiber Bragg structures --- load-sensing bearings --- vehicle dynamics control --- Fibre Bragg Gratings --- neutron diffraction --- X-ray tomography --- tensile test --- fiber Bragg grating sensors --- spectrograph --- high angular dispersion --- curved detectors --- freeform optics

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The optical fiber industry is emerging from the market for selling simple accessories using optical fiber to the new optical-IT convergence sensor market combined with high value-added smart industries such as the bio industry. Among them, fiber optic sensors and fiber lasers are growing faster and more accurately by utilizing fiber optics in various fields such as shipbuilding, construction, energy, military, railway, security, and medical.This Special Issue aims to present novel and innovative applications of sensors and devices based on fiber optic sensors and fiber lasers, and covers a wide range of applications of optical sensors. In this Special Issue, original research articles, as well as reviews, have been published.

Research & information: general --- optical microfiber coupler --- graphene --- fiber laser --- filter --- wavelength-swept laser --- cholesteric liquid crystal --- bandpass filter --- spectral reflectance --- airway management --- endotracheal tube placement --- tissue detection --- tracheal tissue --- esophageal tissue --- intubation --- endotracheal tube misplacement --- weak fiber Bragg gratings --- distributed fiber optic sensor --- phi-OTDR --- nitrate sensing --- optical fibre --- PEDOT --- conducting polymer --- 2H–TaSe2 nano-materials --- metallic band structure --- saturable absorber --- dual-wavelength --- red palm weevil --- fiber optic acoustic sensing --- machine learning --- few-mode fiber --- fiber optic sensors --- Brillouin scattering --- distributed measurement --- fiber lasers --- semiconductor optical amplifier --- dynamic measurement --- dynamic optical fiber sensors --- ultrafast fiber laser --- low-dimensional materials --- optically/electrically controlled fiber lasers --- optical microfiber coupler --- graphene --- fiber laser --- filter --- wavelength-swept laser --- cholesteric liquid crystal --- bandpass filter --- spectral reflectance --- airway management --- endotracheal tube placement --- tissue detection --- tracheal tissue --- esophageal tissue --- intubation --- endotracheal tube misplacement --- weak fiber Bragg gratings --- distributed fiber optic sensor --- phi-OTDR --- nitrate sensing --- optical fibre --- PEDOT --- conducting polymer --- 2H–TaSe2 nano-materials --- metallic band structure --- saturable absorber --- dual-wavelength --- red palm weevil --- fiber optic acoustic sensing --- machine learning --- few-mode fiber --- fiber optic sensors --- Brillouin scattering --- distributed measurement --- fiber lasers --- semiconductor optical amplifier --- dynamic measurement --- dynamic optical fiber sensors --- ultrafast fiber laser --- low-dimensional materials --- optically/electrically controlled fiber lasers

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This book focuses on new sensing technologies, measurement techniques, and their applications in medicine and healthcare. Specifically, the book briefly describes the potential of smart sensors in the aforementioned applications, collecting 24 articles selected and published in the Special Issue “Smart Sensors for Healthcare and Medical Applications”. We proposed this topic, being aware of the pivotal role that smart sensors can play in the improvement of healthcare services in both acute and chronic conditions as well as in prevention for a healthy life and active aging. The articles selected in this book cover a variety of topics related to the design, validation, and application of smart sensors to healthcare.

radiation-induced current --- dosimetry --- photodiodes --- phototransistors (MOSFETs) --- photovoltaic sensor --- CCD/CMOS --- cancer nodules detection --- phantom --- stiffness analysis --- ultrasound analysis --- visual analysis --- automatic robotic platform --- remote support for pathologists --- gait analysis --- gait correction --- electrostatic gait signal --- improved Detrended Cross-Correlation Analysis cross-correlation coefficient --- measuring system --- measurements --- contactless --- respiratory rate --- breathing pattern --- ECG electrode swaps --- ECG electrode potentials --- WCT potential change --- reconstructing correct ECG leads --- MSMinv transformation --- unicolor limb–chest electrodes --- torsional wave --- cervix --- pregnancy --- cervical stiffness --- fiber Bragg gratings --- smart textiles --- wearable systems --- cardiac monitoring --- respiratory monitoring --- precision sports --- archery --- body pressure distribution --- air-filled cell --- alternating pressure air mattress --- time of flight --- air flow --- active control system --- mobile EEG recordings --- montage-replaceable headsets --- BCI --- fiber Bragg grating --- plastic optical fiber --- non-invasive measurement --- pulse wave signals --- blood pressure --- partial least squares regression --- people counting --- bi-directional --- motion detection --- time of flight sensor --- force myography --- prosthetic fitting --- regression --- calibration --- error reduction --- linear regression --- random forest --- general regression neural network --- cross-talk --- force sensitive resistor --- MRI --- EMG --- graph theory --- electrical network --- muscle activity --- forearm --- COPD --- oxygen concentrator --- oxygen therapy --- automatic oxygen concentrator --- physical activity --- machine learning --- respiratory medicine --- portable oxygen concentrator --- oxygen delivery --- cerebral palsy --- game-based rehabilitation exercises --- computerized assessment methods --- motion tracking sensors --- Kinect sensor --- EEG --- PPG --- epilepsy --- signal processing --- brain monitoring --- artificial neural network --- predictive analysis --- dietary monitoring --- healthcare --- ring-type biosensor --- personalized digital medicine --- frailty syndrome --- sit-to-stand --- 30-s chair stand test --- wearable sensors --- fetal movement simulator --- fetal movement monitor --- maternal abdomen model --- acoustic sensor --- accelerometer --- piezoelectric diaphragm --- fiber Bragg grating sensors (FBGs) --- functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) --- grasping actions detection --- motor assessment --- MR-compatible measuring systems --- abdominal movement signal --- hypopnea --- LSTM-RNN --- neural network --- oxygen saturation --- sleep apnea syndrome --- sleep–wake detection --- synchrosqueezing transform --- triaxial accelerometer --- thoracic movement signal --- multiple sclerosis --- kinematics --- surface EMG --- accelerator --- inertial sensor --- T10MW --- markerless motion capture --- automatic pushing analysis --- SCI patients --- RGB-D sensors --- respiration monitoring --- non-contact monitoring --- body movements detection --- thermal imaging --- natural sleep environments --- n/a --- unicolor limb-chest electrodes --- sleep-wake detection

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In recent years, many technologies for gait and posture assessments have emerged. Wearable sensors, active and passive in-house monitors, and many combinations thereof all promise to provide accurate measures of physical activity, gait, and posture parameters. Motivated by market projections for wearable technologies and driven by recent technological innovations in wearable sensors (MEMs, electronic textiles, wireless communications, etc.), wearable health/performance research is growing rapidly and has the potential to transform future healthcare from disease treatment to disease prevention. The objective of this Special Issue is to address and disseminate the latest gait, posture, and activity monitoring systems as well as various mathematical models/methods that characterize mobility functions. This Special Issue focuses on wearable monitoring systems and physical sensors, and its mathematical models can be utilized in varied environments under varied conditions to monitor health and performance

Humanities --- Social interaction --- step detection --- machine learning --- outlier detection --- transition matrices --- autoencoders --- ground reaction force (GRF) --- micro electro mechanical systems (MEMS) --- gait --- walk --- bipedal locomotion --- 3-axis force sensor --- shoe --- force distribution --- multi-sensor gait classification --- distributed compressed sensing --- joint sparse representation classification --- telemonitoring of gait --- operating range --- accelerometer --- stride length --- peak tibial acceleration --- running velocity --- wearable sensors --- feedback technology --- rehabilitation --- motor control --- cerebral palsy --- inertial sensors --- gait events --- spatiotemporal parameters --- postural control --- falls in the elderly --- fall risk assessment --- low-cost instrumented insoles --- foot plantar center of pressure --- flexible sensor --- gait recognition --- piezoelectric material --- wearable --- adaptability --- force sensitive resistors --- self-tuning triple threshold algorithm --- sweat sensor --- sweat rate --- dehydration --- IoT --- PDMS --- surface electromyography --- handgrip force --- force-varying muscle contraction --- nonlinear analysis --- wavelet scale selection --- inertial measurement unit --- gyroscope --- asymmetry --- feature extraction --- gait analysis --- lower limb prosthesis --- trans-femoral amputee --- MR damper --- knee damping control --- inertial measurement units --- motion analysis --- kinematics --- functional activity --- repeatability --- reliability --- biomechanics --- cognitive frailty --- cognitive-motor impairment --- Alzheimer's disease --- motor planning error --- instrumented trail-making task --- ankle reaching task --- dual task walking --- nondestructive --- joint moment --- partial weight loading --- muscle contributions --- sit-to-stand training --- motion parameters --- step length --- self-adaptation --- Parkinson's disease (PD) --- tremor dominant (TD) --- postural instability and gait difficulty (PIGD) --- center of pressure (COP) --- fast Fourier transform (FFT) --- wavelet transform (WT) --- fall detection system --- smartphones --- accelerometers --- machine learning algorithms --- supervised learning --- ANOVA analysis --- Step-detection --- ActiGraph --- Pedometer --- acceleration --- physical activity --- physical function --- physical performance test --- chair stand --- sit to stand transfer --- wearables --- gyroscopes --- e-Health application --- physical rehabilitation --- shear and plantar pressure sensor --- biaxial optical fiber sensor --- multiplexed fiber Bragg gratings --- frailty --- pre-frail --- wearable sensor --- sedentary behavior --- moderate-to-vigorous activity --- steps --- fall detection --- elderly people monitoring --- telerehabilitation --- virtual therapy --- Kinect --- eHealth --- telemedicine --- insole --- injury prevention --- biomechanical gait variable estimation --- inertial gait variable --- total knee arthroplasty --- falls in healthy elderly --- fall prevention --- biometrics --- human gait recognition --- ground reaction forces --- Microsoft Kinect --- high heels --- fusion data --- ensemble classifiers --- accidental falls --- older adults --- neural networks --- convolutional neural network --- long short-term memory --- accelerometry --- obesity --- nonlinear --- electrostatic field sensing --- gait measurement --- temporal parameters --- artificial neural network --- propulsion --- aging --- walking --- smart footwear --- frailty prediction --- fall risk --- smartphone based assessments --- adverse post-operative outcome --- intelligent surveillance systems --- human fall detection --- health and well-being --- safety and security --- movement control --- anterior cruciate ligament --- kinetics --- real-time feedback --- biomechanical gait features --- impaired gait classification --- pattern recognition --- sensors --- clinical --- knee --- osteoarthritis --- shear stress --- callus --- woman --- TUG --- IMU --- geriatric assessment --- semi-unsupervised --- self-assessment --- domestic environment --- functional decline --- symmetry --- trunk movement --- autocorrelation --- gait rehabilitation --- wearable device --- IMU sensors --- gait classification --- stroke patients --- neurological disorders --- scanning laser rangefinders (SLR), GAITRite --- cadence --- velocity and stride-length --- power --- angular velocity --- human motion measurement --- sensor fusion --- complementary filter --- fuzzy logic --- inertial and magnetic sensors --- ESOQ-2 --- Parkinson's disease --- UPDRS --- movement disorders --- human computer interface --- RGB-Depth --- hand tracking --- automated assessment --- at-home monitoring --- Parkinson's Diseases --- motorized walker --- haptic cue --- gait pattern --- statistics study --- walk detection --- step counting --- signal processing --- plantar pressure --- flat foot --- insoles --- force sensors --- arch index --- sports analytics --- deep learning --- classification --- inertial sensor --- cross-country skiing --- classical style --- skating style --- batteryless strain sensor --- wireless strain sensor --- resonant frequency modulation --- Ecoflex --- human activity recognition --- smartphone --- human daily activity --- ensemble method --- running --- velocity --- smart shoe --- concussion --- inertial motion units (IMUs) --- vestibular exercises --- validation --- motion capture --- user intent recognition --- transfemoral prosthesis --- multi-objective optimization --- biogeography-based optimization --- smart cane --- weight-bearing --- health monitoring --- wearable/inertial sensors --- regularity --- variability --- human --- motion --- locomotion --- UPDRS tasks --- posture --- postural stability --- center of mass --- RGB-depth --- neurorehabilitation --- hallux abductus valgus --- high heel --- proximal phalanx of the hallux --- abduction --- valgus --- ultrasonography --- Achilles tendon --- diagnostic --- imaging --- tendinopathy --- foot insoles --- electromyography --- joint instability --- muscle contractions --- motorcycling --- wearable electronic devices --- validity --- relative movement --- lower limb prosthetics --- biomechanic measurement tasks --- quantifying socket fit --- rehabilitation exercise --- dynamic time warping --- automatic coaching --- exergame --- fine-wire intramuscular EMG electrode --- non-human primate model --- traumatic spinal cord injury --- wavelet transform --- relative power --- linear mixed model --- VO2 --- calibration --- MET --- VO2net --- speed --- equivalent speed --- free-living --- children --- adolescents --- adults --- gait event detection --- hemiplegic gait --- appropriate mother wavelet --- acceleration signal --- wavelet-selection criteria --- conductive textile --- stroke --- hemiparetic --- real-time monitoring --- lower limb locomotion activity --- triplet Markov model --- semi-Markov model --- on-line EM algorithm --- human kinematics --- phase difference angle --- step detection --- machine learning --- outlier detection --- transition matrices --- autoencoders --- ground reaction force (GRF) --- micro electro mechanical systems (MEMS) --- gait --- walk --- bipedal locomotion --- 3-axis force sensor --- shoe --- force distribution --- multi-sensor gait classification --- distributed compressed sensing --- joint sparse representation classification --- telemonitoring of gait --- operating range --- accelerometer --- stride length --- peak tibial acceleration --- running velocity --- wearable sensors --- feedback technology --- rehabilitation --- motor control --- cerebral palsy --- inertial sensors --- gait events --- spatiotemporal parameters --- postural control --- falls in the elderly --- fall risk assessment --- low-cost instrumented insoles --- foot plantar center of pressure --- flexible sensor --- gait recognition --- piezoelectric material --- wearable --- adaptability --- force sensitive resistors --- self-tuning triple threshold algorithm --- sweat sensor --- sweat rate --- dehydration --- IoT --- PDMS --- surface electromyography --- handgrip force --- force-varying muscle contraction --- nonlinear analysis --- wavelet scale selection --- inertial measurement unit --- gyroscope --- asymmetry --- feature extraction --- gait analysis --- lower limb prosthesis --- trans-femoral amputee --- MR damper --- knee damping control --- inertial measurement units --- motion analysis --- kinematics --- functional activity --- repeatability --- reliability --- biomechanics --- cognitive frailty --- cognitive-motor impairment --- Alzheimer's disease --- motor planning error --- instrumented trail-making task --- ankle reaching task --- dual task walking --- nondestructive --- joint moment --- partial weight loading --- muscle contributions --- sit-to-stand training --- motion parameters --- step length --- self-adaptation --- Parkinson's disease (PD) --- tremor dominant (TD) --- postural instability and gait difficulty (PIGD) --- center of pressure (COP) --- fast Fourier transform (FFT) --- wavelet transform (WT) --- fall detection system --- smartphones --- accelerometers --- machine learning algorithms --- supervised learning --- ANOVA analysis --- Step-detection --- ActiGraph --- Pedometer --- acceleration --- physical activity --- physical function --- physical performance test --- chair stand --- sit to stand transfer --- wearables --- gyroscopes --- e-Health application --- physical rehabilitation --- shear and plantar pressure sensor --- biaxial optical fiber sensor --- multiplexed fiber Bragg gratings --- frailty --- pre-frail --- wearable sensor --- sedentary behavior --- moderate-to-vigorous activity --- steps --- fall detection --- elderly people monitoring --- telerehabilitation --- virtual therapy --- Kinect --- eHealth --- telemedicine --- insole --- injury prevention --- biomechanical gait variable estimation --- inertial gait variable --- total knee arthroplasty --- falls in healthy elderly --- fall prevention --- biometrics --- human gait recognition --- ground reaction forces --- Microsoft Kinect --- high heels --- fusion data --- ensemble classifiers --- accidental falls --- older adults --- neural networks --- convolutional neural network --- long short-term memory --- accelerometry --- obesity --- nonlinear --- electrostatic field sensing --- gait measurement --- temporal parameters --- artificial neural network --- propulsion --- aging --- walking --- smart footwear --- frailty prediction --- fall risk --- smartphone based assessments --- adverse post-operative outcome --- intelligent surveillance systems --- human fall detection --- health and well-being --- safety and security --- movement control --- anterior cruciate ligament --- kinetics --- real-time feedback --- biomechanical gait features --- impaired gait classification --- pattern recognition --- sensors --- clinical --- knee --- osteoarthritis --- shear stress --- callus --- woman --- TUG --- IMU --- geriatric assessment --- semi-unsupervised --- self-assessment --- domestic environment --- functional decline --- symmetry --- trunk movement --- autocorrelation --- gait rehabilitation --- wearable device --- IMU sensors --- gait classification --- stroke patients --- neurological disorders --- scanning laser rangefinders (SLR), GAITRite --- cadence --- velocity and stride-length --- power --- angular velocity --- human motion measurement --- sensor fusion --- complementary filter --- fuzzy logic --- inertial and magnetic sensors --- ESOQ-2 --- Parkinson's disease --- UPDRS --- movement disorders --- human computer interface --- RGB-Depth --- hand tracking --- automated assessment --- at-home monitoring --- Parkinson's Diseases --- motorized walker --- haptic cue --- gait pattern --- statistics study --- walk detection --- step counting --- signal processing --- plantar pressure --- flat foot --- insoles --- force sensors --- arch index --- sports analytics --- deep learning --- classification --- inertial sensor --- cross-country skiing --- classical style --- skating style --- batteryless strain sensor --- wireless strain sensor --- resonant frequency modulation --- Ecoflex --- human activity recognition --- smartphone --- human daily activity --- ensemble method --- running --- velocity --- smart shoe --- concussion --- inertial motion units (IMUs) --- vestibular exercises --- validation --- motion capture --- user intent recognition --- transfemoral prosthesis --- multi-objective optimization --- biogeography-based optimization --- smart cane --- weight-bearing --- health monitoring --- wearable/inertial sensors --- regularity --- variability --- human --- motion --- locomotion --- UPDRS tasks --- posture --- postural stability --- center of mass --- RGB-depth --- neurorehabilitation --- hallux abductus valgus --- high heel --- proximal phalanx of the hallux --- abduction --- valgus --- ultrasonography --- Achilles tendon --- diagnostic --- imaging --- tendinopathy --- foot insoles --- electromyography --- joint instability --- muscle contractions --- motorcycling --- wearable electronic devices --- validity --- relative movement --- lower limb prosthetics --- biomechanic measurement tasks --- quantifying socket fit --- rehabilitation exercise --- dynamic time warping --- automatic coaching --- exergame --- fine-wire intramuscular EMG electrode --- non-human primate model --- traumatic spinal cord injury --- wavelet transform --- relative power --- linear mixed model --- VO2 --- calibration --- MET --- VO2net --- speed --- equivalent speed --- free-living --- children --- adolescents --- adults --- gait event detection --- hemiplegic gait --- appropriate mother wavelet --- acceleration signal --- wavelet-selection criteria --- conductive textile --- stroke --- hemiparetic --- real-time monitoring --- lower limb locomotion activity --- triplet Markov model --- semi-Markov model --- on-line EM algorithm --- human kinematics --- phase difference angle