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Since the 1990s, India has seen robust economic growth, rising wages, steady fertility decline, increased urbanization, and expanded educational attainment for males and females. But unlike other countries that have undergone similar transitions, urban women's employment has refused to budge, never crossing the 25 percent mark. This paper fills a critical gap in policy research on women's employment in India. The discussion is situated in the normative construction of motherhood and the gendered nature of caregiving in India. The analysis uses pooled data from six rounds of the National Sample Surveys to examine the effects of having a young child on mothers' employment in urban India over 1983-2011. The analysis also looks at household structure, and analyzes the effects of other household members on women's labor supply. The results show that although the onus of childbearing may have reduced, that of caregiving has increased. Having a young child in the home depresses mothers' employment, an inverse relationship that has intensified over time. Further, living in a household with older children and women over the age of 50 is positively associated with women's employment. These results show that the care of young children is an increasingly important issue in women's employment decisions, in a context where formal childcare is practically nonexistent. These results have significant implications for policy to raise women's labor force participation in India.

Child Bearing --- Childcare --- Depression --- Employment --- Fertility Rates --- Healthcare --- Household Income --- Household Survey --- Income Group --- Incomes --- Living Standards --- Motherhood --- National Surveys --- Risks --- Salary --- Wages --- Women

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Female labor force participation rate in Turkey is quite low by European Union (EU) and Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) standards: it was 24.9 percent in 2006, compared to 66.1 percent in EU-27 and 60.8 percent in OECD countries. Moreover, it has declined from 34.3 percent in 1988 to 24.9 percent in 2006. The purpose of this report is to shed light on factors that determine women's participation in the labor market and the reasons behind the observed trends over the 1988-2006 periods. An important reason for the fall in female participation rate is urbanization. Turkey has witnessed high levels migration from rural to urban areas since 1988. The share of urban population rose from 51.1 percent in 1988 to 63.3 percent in 2006. Despite the declining trend, the female labor force participation rate in rural areas is still higher than that in urban areas, which has been more stable over time. In fact, the gender gap in participation rate in urban areas is much wider. Significant improvements have taken in place in women's schooling in recent decades in Turkey. The final interesting finding that requires further investigation is the low and stagnant participation rates of low skilled women - those with less than high school education. Over the 2000-2006 periods, the participation rate of low skilled women varied between 10.9 and 11.8 percent. These are considerably lower rates compared to that of low skilled men which, over the same time period, varied between 67.1 and 68.8 percent.

Birth Control --- Child Care --- Compulsory Schooling --- Discrimination --- Divorce --- Early Retirement --- Education --- Educational Attainment --- Educational Outcomes --- Fertility --- Fertility Rates --- Gender --- Gender and Economics --- Household Income --- Innovation --- Labor Market --- Labor Markets --- Labor Policies --- Migration --- Minimum Wage --- Occupations --- Participation Rates --- Primary Education --- Retirement --- Rural Population --- Schools --- Sexual Harassment --- Social Protections and Labor --- Unemployment --- Urban Areas --- Urban Population --- Urbanization --- Working Hours --- Youth

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The countries of the Europe and Central Asia (ECA) region are confronting a number of demographic challenges over the coming decades. These include shrinking populations and labor forces because of below replacement-level fertility and older age structures, high mortality in a large portion of the region, aging populations and high dependency ratios, shrinking youth populations and less new entrants to the labor force, and relatively immobile populations. The report is structured as follows. After this introduction, the second section reviews population trends in the ECA region over the past two decades. Following that is a review of the literature on the issue of aging globally and specifically in the ECA region. This includes the implications of population aging on economic growth and, employment, and public expenditures. The next section looks at projections of demographic trends in the ECA region for the period 2010 to 2040, including aging trends. Following this is an examination of the role that migration and mobility play in the aging process among the ECA countries in the future. The final section concludes by discussing policy options and areas for further research and analysis.

Abortion --- Child Care --- Child Mortality --- Child Rearing --- Demographics --- Developing Countries --- Disasters --- Educational Attainment --- Elderly Persons --- Employment Opportunities --- Family Planning --- Fertility --- Fertility Rates --- Health Insurance --- Health, Nutrition and Population --- Human Capital --- Human Migrations & Resettlements --- Immigration --- Life Expectancy --- Long-Term Care --- Low-Income Countries --- Marriage --- Migration --- Mortality --- Natural Disasters --- Population Growth --- Remittances --- Social Change --- Unemployment --- Unions --- Urban Areas --- Women

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Using a stochastic general equilibrium model with overlapping generations, this paper studies (i) the effects on both extensive and intensive labor supply responses to changes in fertility rates, and (ii) the potential of a retirement reform to mitigate the effects of fertility changes on labor supply. In order to neutralize the effects on effective labor supply of a fertility decline, a retirement reform, designed to increase labor supply at the extensive margin, is found to simultaneously reduce labor supply at the intensive margin. This backlash to retirement reform requires the statutory retirement age to increase more than proportionally to fertility changes in order to compensate for endogenous responses of the intensity of labor supply. The robustness of this result is checked against alternative model specifications and calibrations relevant to an economic region such as Europe.

Economic implications --- Economic Theory & Research --- Fertility decline --- Fertility rates --- General equilibrium --- Health, Nutrition and Population --- Labor Markets --- Labor Policies --- Labour supply --- Macroeconomics and Economic Growth --- Overlapping generations model --- Pensions & Retirement Systems --- Policy Research Working Paper --- Population Policies --- Retirement --- Retirement age --- Retirement Policy --- Social Protections and Labor

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This study outlines the initial challenge presented by the HIV/AIDS epidemic, describes Djibouti's response, reviews the results achieved and the enabling factors in curbing the spread of the epidemic, and identifies remaining challenges. Between 2002 and 2008, HIV prevalence among young pregnant women aged 15-24 was reduced from 2.7 percent to 1.9 percent and among sentinel surveillance groups from 2.5 percent to 1.9 percent. HIV prevalence among tuberculosis patients was reduced from an estimated 22 percent to 12 percent. Condom use during last intercourse outside marriage increased from 27 percent to 55 percent and reached 95 percent among sex workers. Among the general population, awareness of HIV/AIDS increased to 95 percent and knowledge about transmission and prevention rose to 50 percent. Political commitment, engagement of community and religious leaders, rigorous communication, social marketing and the provision of an integrated package of medical and social services, and donor harmonization were among the key factors that contributed to the achievement of these results. Despite these impressive results in a relatively short period, Djibouti still has to address several challenges and consolidate program gains, but most importantly, funds are being mobilized from government resources to sustain the national AIDS control program.

Capacity Building --- Child Mortality --- Civil Society Organizations --- Communication Channels --- Discrimination --- Disease Control & Prevention --- Drugs --- Epidemiology --- Family Health --- Family Planning --- Fertility --- Fertility Rates --- Gender --- Health Education --- Health Monitoring & Evaluation --- Health Policy --- Health, Nutrition and Population --- Hospitals --- Hygiene --- Immigration --- International Cooperation --- Life Expectancy --- Malaria --- Mass Media --- Maternal Health --- Maternal Mortality --- Midwives --- Migration --- Mortality --- Nutrition --- Orphans --- Physicians --- Population Policies --- Posters --- Prenatal Care --- Public Health --- Quality Control --- Refugees --- Sex Workers --- Sexually Transmitted Diseases --- Technical Assistance --- Tuberculosis --- Unemployment --- Urban Areas --- Vulnerable Groups --- World Health Organization