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For many years, arteriogenesis, also called collateral formation, has been regarded as being a beneficial process to restore blood flow to distal tissues in occluded arteries. Therefore, it is frequently referred to in relation to therapeutic angiogenesis. Despite the big clinical potential and the many promising clinical trials on arteriogenesis and therapeutic angiogenesis, the exact molecular mechanisms involved in the multifactorial processes of arteriogenesis are still not completely understood. A better understanding is needed in order to define successful clinical therapies. In this Special Issue, multiple aspects of arteriogenesis and therapeutic angiogenesis will be addressed, ranging from the role of inflammatory processes and immune cells, to growth factors, microRNAs and environmental factors like hypoxia. Therapeutic angiogenesis will also be discussed in relation to the atherosclerosis and intraplaque angiogenesis in hypoxic lesions, as well as specific forms of arteriogenesis in relation to spinal cord blood supply and aorta surgery. The effects of exercise, a frequently prescribed therapy for PAD patients, on arteriogenesis are also discussed. Overall, the papers in this Special Issue on arteriogenesis and therapeutic angiogenesis provide important new insights in the underlying pathophysiological mechanism of these complex processes and may be helpful to define a successful future intervention directed at therapeutic angiogenesis.

Medicine --- factor VII activating protease --- HABP2 --- VEGF --- matrigel --- neo-vascularization --- hind limb ischemia --- angiogenesis --- arteriogenesis --- ERK --- endothelial cells --- inflammation --- macrophages --- atherosclerosis --- pericyte --- rAAV --- capillary --- microRNA --- isomiRs --- epitranscriptome --- neovascularization --- A-to-I editing --- m6A --- RNA modifications --- RNA methylation --- lower extremity arterial disease --- peripheral arterial disease --- blood flow restriction --- activity-based benefits --- training effects --- effect mechanism --- hyperoxygenation --- vein graft disease --- vascular biology --- spinal cord ischemia --- paraplegia --- aortic disease --- TAAA --- collateral network --- paraspinous compartment --- NO --- NOTCH --- innate immunity --- mast cell --- GH and eNOS --- IGF-I --- oxidative stress and arterial inflammation --- vascular homeostasis --- GHAS trial --- collateral artery growth --- SMC proliferation --- potassium channel --- KV1.3 --- KCa3.1 --- FGFR-1 --- Egr-1 --- PDFG-R --- αSM-actin --- TLR2/6 --- femoral artery ligation --- blood flow recovery --- collateral growth --- VHL loss of function --- microRNA-212/132 --- factor VII activating protease --- HABP2 --- VEGF --- matrigel --- neo-vascularization --- hind limb ischemia --- angiogenesis --- arteriogenesis --- ERK --- endothelial cells --- inflammation --- macrophages --- atherosclerosis --- pericyte --- rAAV --- capillary --- microRNA --- isomiRs --- epitranscriptome --- neovascularization --- A-to-I editing --- m6A --- RNA modifications --- RNA methylation --- lower extremity arterial disease --- peripheral arterial disease --- blood flow restriction --- activity-based benefits --- training effects --- effect mechanism --- hyperoxygenation --- vein graft disease --- vascular biology --- spinal cord ischemia --- paraplegia --- aortic disease --- TAAA --- collateral network --- paraspinous compartment --- NO --- NOTCH --- innate immunity --- mast cell --- GH and eNOS --- IGF-I --- oxidative stress and arterial inflammation --- vascular homeostasis --- GHAS trial --- collateral artery growth --- SMC proliferation --- potassium channel --- KV1.3 --- KCa3.1 --- FGFR-1 --- Egr-1 --- PDFG-R --- αSM-actin --- TLR2/6 --- femoral artery ligation --- blood flow recovery --- collateral growth --- VHL loss of function --- microRNA-212/132

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Cardiac biomarkers such as troponins and natiuretic peptides have made a great impact on clinical decision making as well as improving our understanding of molecular mechanisms of different disease conditions. However, the biomarkers that are currently in use do not reflect all the multiple disease pathways that are involved in a broad spectrum of cardiac disease conditions ranging from acute coronary syndrome, to heart failure (and heart failure with preserved ejection fraction, HFpEF), to pulmonary hypertension or arrhythmias. In this Special Issue, we will provide an overview of the current developments in the field of biomarker research, beginning with research on molecular pathways and cellular communication (e.g., microRNA) up to the clinical use of biomarkers.

Medicine --- diet quality --- ceramides --- obesity --- cardiovascular risk --- healthy eating index --- carbohydrate antigen-125 --- heart failure --- inflammatory marker --- older women --- biomarker --- cardiometabolic disease --- epicardial adipose tissue --- epicardial fat --- epicardial fat volume --- microRNA --- thyroid-stimulating hormone --- cardiometabolic risks --- metabolic syndrome --- hypertension --- very low-density lipoprotein --- STIM1 --- SOCE --- atrial myopathy --- atrial fibrillation --- ejection fraction --- soluble urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor (suPAR) --- growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF-15) --- heart-type fatty acid-binding protein (H-FABP) --- soluble suppression of tumorigenicity 2 (sST2) --- acute myocardial infarction --- biomarkers --- catestatin --- coronary artery disease --- heart failure decompensation --- left ventricular ejection fraction --- troponin --- NT-proBNP --- NYHA functional class --- GDF-15 --- cardiovascular surgery --- operative risk --- muscle wasting --- sarcopenia --- renal dysfunction --- chronic kidney disease --- aortic disease --- aneurysm --- miRNA --- TGF-β pathway --- KLF4 --- synthetic phenotype --- aortic regurgitation --- echocardiography --- magnetic resonance imaging --- vena contracta area --- longitudinal strain --- T1 mapping --- GDF8 --- myostatin --- AMI --- ceruloplasmin --- H-FABP --- heart-type fatty acid-binding protein --- FABP3 --- fatty acid-binding protein 3 --- HF --- cardiac biomarkers --- cardiac magnetic resonance imaging --- left ventricular systolic function --- magnetic resonance spectroscopy --- myocardial triglyceride content --- cell adhesion molecule --- repeated measurements --- pregnancy-associated plasma protein-A --- cohort studies --- cardiovascular diseases --- mitochondrial dysfunction --- circulating cells --- PBMCS --- platelets --- oxidative stress --- reactive oxygen species (ROS) --- mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) --- herat failure --- liver-type fatty-acid-binding protein --- long-term outcomes --- cardiac intensive care units --- acute kidney injury --- myocardial infarction --- STEMI --- cardiovascular events --- cardiovascular death --- risk stratification --- sST2 --- Pentraxin-3 --- sudden cardiac death --- ventricular arrhythmia --- ventricular tachycardia --- chronic heart failure --- saliva --- salivary biomarkers --- CKD --- CVD --- PPCI --- left ventricular adverse remodelling --- circulating miRNAs --- NAFLD --- Framingham risk score --- risk prediction --- secondary prevention --- primary prevention --- NAFLD fibrosis score --- HFpEF --- HFrEF --- suPAR --- diet quality --- ceramides --- obesity --- cardiovascular risk --- healthy eating index --- carbohydrate antigen-125 --- heart failure --- inflammatory marker --- older women --- biomarker --- cardiometabolic disease --- epicardial adipose tissue --- epicardial fat --- epicardial fat volume --- microRNA --- thyroid-stimulating hormone --- cardiometabolic risks --- metabolic syndrome --- hypertension --- very low-density lipoprotein --- STIM1 --- SOCE --- atrial myopathy --- atrial fibrillation --- ejection fraction --- soluble urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor (suPAR) --- growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF-15) --- heart-type fatty acid-binding protein (H-FABP) --- soluble suppression of tumorigenicity 2 (sST2) --- acute myocardial infarction --- biomarkers --- catestatin --- coronary artery disease --- heart failure decompensation --- left ventricular ejection fraction --- troponin --- NT-proBNP --- NYHA functional class --- GDF-15 --- cardiovascular surgery --- operative risk --- muscle wasting --- sarcopenia --- renal dysfunction --- chronic kidney disease --- aortic disease --- aneurysm --- miRNA --- TGF-β pathway --- KLF4 --- synthetic phenotype --- aortic regurgitation --- echocardiography --- magnetic resonance imaging --- vena contracta area --- longitudinal strain --- T1 mapping --- GDF8 --- myostatin --- AMI --- ceruloplasmin --- H-FABP --- heart-type fatty acid-binding protein --- FABP3 --- fatty acid-binding protein 3 --- HF --- cardiac biomarkers --- cardiac magnetic resonance imaging --- left ventricular systolic function --- magnetic resonance spectroscopy --- myocardial triglyceride content --- cell adhesion molecule --- repeated measurements --- pregnancy-associated plasma protein-A --- cohort studies --- cardiovascular diseases --- mitochondrial dysfunction --- circulating cells --- PBMCS --- platelets --- oxidative stress --- reactive oxygen species (ROS) --- mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) --- herat failure --- liver-type fatty-acid-binding protein --- long-term outcomes --- cardiac intensive care units --- acute kidney injury --- myocardial infarction --- STEMI --- cardiovascular events --- cardiovascular death --- risk stratification --- sST2 --- Pentraxin-3 --- sudden cardiac death --- ventricular arrhythmia --- ventricular tachycardia --- chronic heart failure --- saliva --- salivary biomarkers --- CKD --- CVD --- PPCI --- left ventricular adverse remodelling --- circulating miRNAs --- NAFLD --- Framingham risk score --- risk prediction --- secondary prevention --- primary prevention --- NAFLD fibrosis score --- HFpEF --- HFrEF --- suPAR

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Aorta --- Blood-vessels --- Aortic aneurysms --- Controlled Clinical Trials as Topic --- Arteries --- Aortic Diseases --- Aneurysm --- Investigative Techniques --- Cardiovascular Surgical Procedures --- Pathologic Processes --- Vascular Diseases --- Pathological Conditions, Signs and Symptoms --- Clinical Trials as Topic --- Surgical Procedures, Operative --- Analytical, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Techniques and Equipment --- Blood Vessels --- Cardiovascular Diseases --- Cardiovascular System --- Evaluation Studies as Topic --- Epidemiologic Study Characteristics as Topic --- Diseases --- Health Care Evaluation Mechanisms --- Epidemiologic Methods --- Anatomy --- Quality of Health Care --- Public Health --- Health Care Quality, Access, and Evaluation --- Environment and Public Health --- Health Care --- Methods --- Vascular Surgical Procedures --- Aortic Aneurysm --- Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic --- Postoperative Complications --- Surgery & Anesthesiology --- Health & Biological Sciences --- Surgery - General and By Type --- Study Characteristic, Epidemiologic --- Study Characteristics, Epidemiologic --- Critique --- Evaluation Indexes --- Evaluation Methodology --- Evaluation Report --- Evaluation Research --- Methodology, Evaluation --- Pre-Post Tests --- Qualitative Evaluation --- Quantitative Evaluation --- Theoretical Effectiveness --- Use-Effectiveness --- Critiques --- Effectiveness, Theoretical --- Evaluation Methodologies --- Evaluation Reports --- Evaluation, Qualitative --- Evaluation, Quantitative --- Evaluations, Qualitative --- Evaluations, Quantitative --- Indexes, Evaluation --- Methodologies, Evaluation --- Pre Post Tests --- Pre-Post Test --- Qualitative Evaluations --- Quantitative Evaluations --- Report, Evaluation --- Reports, Evaluation --- Research, Evaluation --- Test, Pre-Post --- Tests, Pre-Post --- Use Effectiveness --- Circulatory System --- Cardiovascular Systems --- Circulatory Systems --- Blood Circulation --- Cardiovascular Disease --- Disease, Cardiovascular --- Diseases, Cardiovascular --- Cardiology --- Blood Vessel --- Vessel, Blood --- Vessels, Blood --- Ghost Surgery --- Operative Procedures --- Operative Surgical Procedure --- Operative Surgical Procedures --- Procedure, Operative Surgical --- Procedures, Operative Surgical --- Surgery, Ghost --- Surgical Procedure, Operative --- Surgical Procedures --- Operative Procedure --- Procedure, Operative --- Procedure, Surgical --- Procedures, Operative --- Procedures, Surgical --- Surgical Procedure --- General Surgery --- Clinical Trial as Topic --- Clinical Protocols --- Drug Evaluation --- Drugs, Investigational --- Clinical Trials Data Monitoring Committees --- Therapies, Investigational --- Symptoms and General Pathology --- Disease, Vascular --- Diseases, Vascular --- Vascular Disease --- Pathological Processes --- Processes, Pathologic --- Processes, Pathological --- Cardiovascular Surgical Procedure --- Procedure, Cardiovascular Surgical --- Procedures, Cardiovascular Surgical --- Surgical Procedure, Cardiovascular --- Surgical Procedures, Cardiovascular --- Thoracic Surgery --- Investigative Technics --- Investigative Technic --- Investigative Technique --- Technic, Investigative --- Technics, Investigative --- Technique, Investigative --- Techniques, Investigative --- Fusiform Aneurysm --- Saccular Aneurysm --- Aneurysm, Fusiform --- Aneurysms --- Aneurysms, Fusiform --- Fusiform Aneurysms --- Aortic Disease --- Disease, Aortic --- Diseases, Aortic --- Artery --- Clinical Trials, Controlled as Topic --- Control Groups --- Aneurysms, Aortic --- Vascular surgery --- Complication, Postoperative --- Complications, Postoperative --- Postoperative Complication --- Ascending Aorta --- Aorta, Ascending --- Aortas --- Aortas, Ascending --- Ascending Aortas --- Trials, Randomized Clinical --- Clinical Trials, Randomized --- Controlled Clinical Trials, Randomized --- Non-Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic --- Aneurysm, Aortic --- Aortic Aneurysms --- Procedure, Vascular Surgical --- Procedures, Vascular Surgical --- Surgical Procedure, Vascular --- Surgical Procedures, Vascular --- Vascular Surgical Procedure --- Methodological Studies --- Methodological Study --- Procedures --- Studies, Methodological --- Study, Methodological --- Method --- Procedure --- Community-Based Distribution --- Contraceptive Distribution --- Delivery of Healthcare --- Dental Care Delivery --- Distribution, Non-Clinical --- Distribution, Nonclinical --- Distributional Activities --- Healthcare --- Healthcare Delivery --- Healthcare Systems --- Non-Clinical Distribution --- Nonclinical Distribution --- Delivery of Dental Care --- Health Care Delivery --- Health Care Systems --- Activities, Distributional --- Activity, Distributional --- Care, Health --- Community Based Distribution --- Community-Based Distributions --- Contraceptive Distributions --- Deliveries, Healthcare --- Delivery, Dental Care --- Delivery, Health Care --- Delivery, Healthcare --- Distribution, Community-Based --- Distribution, Contraceptive --- Distribution, Non Clinical --- Distributional Activity --- Distributions, Community-Based --- Distributions, Contraceptive --- Distributions, Non-Clinical --- Distributions, Nonclinical --- Health Care System --- Healthcare Deliveries --- Healthcare System --- Non Clinical Distribution --- Non-Clinical Distributions --- Nonclinical Distributions --- System, Health Care --- System, Healthcare --- Systems, Health Care --- Systems, Healthcare --- Healthcare Quality, Access, and Evaluation --- Community Health --- Environment, Preventive Medicine & Public Health --- Environment, Preventive Medicine and Public Health --- Health, Community --- Health, Public --- Preventive Medicine --- Education, Public Health Professional --- Pharmacy Audit --- Quality of Care --- Quality of Healthcare --- Audit, Pharmacy --- Care Quality --- Health Care Quality --- Healthcare Quality --- Pharmacy Audits --- Anatomies --- Epidemiologic Method --- Epidemiological Methods --- Methods, Epidemiologic --- Epidemiological Method --- Method, Epidemiologic --- Method, Epidemiological --- Methods, Epidemiological --- Epidemiology --- Healthcare Evaluation Mechanisms --- Evaluation Mechanism, Healthcare --- Evaluation Mechanisms, Healthcare --- Healthcare Evaluation Mechanism --- Mechanism, Healthcare Evaluation --- Mechanisms, Healthcare Evaluation --- Surgery --- surgery --- methods --- Techniques --- Technique --- Adverse Cardiac Event --- Cardiac Events --- Major Adverse Cardiac Events --- Adverse Cardiac Events --- Cardiac Event --- Cardiac Event, Adverse --- Cardiac Events, Adverse --- Event, Cardiac --- Diagnostic Techniques and Procedures