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The contamination of food and feed with mycotoxins represents a worldwide problem. In order to conduct a risk assessment, further studies on the level of contamination and the toxicity of the mycotoxins are needed. The objective of the present work was to investigate the genotoxicity and the in vitro metabolism of zearalenone as well as of Alternaria toxins with a perylene quinone structure. New insights for the risk assessment of these mycotoxins were obtained.

Mykotoxine Alternaria Altertoxine Fusarium Zearalenonmycotoxins Alternaria altertoxins Fusarium zearalenone

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Health and safety of food and feed are the most important criteria for their quality. The quality of feed is in turn important for animal health, the environment and for the safety of food from animal origin. Fungi belonging to the Fusarium genus are widespread in crops causing plant diseases and producing toxic metabolites. Fusarium species can colonize plants during their growth on the field and cause serious damage in terms of yield and quality of harvested grains. One of the most important fungal diseases of wheat and other cereals in the world is Fusarium head blight caused by the fungal pathogens Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium culmorum and others. In addition, these fungi produce mycotoxins, contaminating food and feed. The most important Fusarium mycotoxins include trichothecenes, zearalenone and fumonisins, primarily because of their prevalence, but also because of the toxic effect to humans and animals. However, these fungi produce also other mycotoxins such as moniliformin, beauvericin, enniantin or fusarins. Food and feed can be contaminated with mycotoxins at various stages in the production chain resulting in serious problems with health, safety and economic losses. It is estimated that 25% of the crop in the world each year are contaminated with these metabolites, the problem affects both industrialized countries and developing countries. The aim of this Research Topic of Frontiers in Microbiology is to publish state of the art research about occurrence and genomics of Fusarium species and their mycotoxins in the whole food and feed chain starting from the crops as well as implications for health and economic aspects. This research topic highlights the current knowledge on the plant diseases caused by Fusarium fungi as well as all aspects of Fusarium mycotoxin contamination of crops, food and feed, taking into account decontamination methods.

food contamination --- decontamination --- zearalenone --- disease resistance --- mycotoxins --- fumonisins --- Fusarium --- cereals --- trichothecenes --- breeding

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Trichothecenes --- Animal health --- public health --- Immunological techniques --- ELISA --- Animal feeding --- Mycotoxins --- Aflatoxins --- Ochratoxins --- Zearalenone --- Europe

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This Book of Toxins comprises 11 original contributions and one review. New findings regarding presence of mycotoxins in aromatic and medicinal plants, mango and orange juice, juices, pulps, jams, and beer, from Morocco, Pakistan, and Portugal are reported. In these studies, innovative techniques to study their presence has been developed, including liquid chromatography coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry to analyse mycotoxins and conjugated mycotoxins. Novel strategies to detect mycotoxin presence and comparisons the characteristics of a rapid quantitative analysis of different mycotoxins (deoxynivalenol, ochratoxin A, patulin, sterigmatocystin, and zearalenone) are also presented using acetyl- and butyrylcholinesterases and photobacterial strains of luminescent cells. Additionally, toxicological effects of zearalenone metabolites and beauvericin on SH-SY5Y neuronal cells are presented. One important point in the control of mycotoxins is related to decontaminated strategies, and in this sense the efficacy of potentially probiotic fruit-derived Lactobacillus isolates in removing aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is presented. Other mycotoxin decontaminated techniques included in this book are electron beam irradiation (EBI) and degradation of zearalenone and ochratoxin A using ozone. Finally, a review that summarizes the newly discovered macrocyclic trichothecenes and their bioactivities over the last decade is included.The evaluation of the presence of mycotoxins in different matrices is achieved through different analytical tools (including quantitative or qualitative determinations). Studies of mycotoxin isolation, using chromatographyc equipment coupled to spectrometry detectors (QTrap-MS/MS, MS/MS tandem, QTOF-MS/MS), are the most useful tools to control their presence. All these studies represent key steps in the establishment of the limits of detection, limits of quantification, points of identification, accuracy, reproducibility, and repeatability of different procedures. The maximum permitted or recommended levels for mycotoxins in different matrices are within a wide range (including the levels tolerated by infants and animals). In addition, decontaminated strategies, as well as control and evaluation of exposure, are demanded by authorities and food safety systems.

Medicine --- patulin --- mango --- orange --- fruit-derived products --- food safety --- regulatory limits --- chitosan --- mycotoxins --- detoxification --- LC-MS/MS --- optimization --- Destruxins --- Bombyx mori --- BmArgRS --- BmLamin-C --- RNA helicase --- binding protein --- ozone --- electron beam irradiation --- degradation --- zearalenone --- ochratoxin A --- SH-SY5Y cells --- zearalenone derivates --- beauvericin --- MTT --- qTOF–MS/MS --- beer --- immunoaffinity clean-up --- LC-FD --- human risk assessment --- Enniatin B1 --- biomonitoring --- in vivo --- metabolomics --- high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) --- macrocyclic trichothecenes --- bioactivities --- putative biosynthetic pathway --- macrocycle formation --- entomopathogens --- mycoinsecticides --- secondary metabolites --- insect pathogenesis --- acetamiprid accumulation --- aflatoxin M1 --- Lactobacillus --- probiotics --- binding --- bioluminescent bacteria --- immobilized cells --- cholinesterase-based analysis --- analytical characteristics --- enzymatic detoxification --- co-occurrence --- Q-TOF-LC/MS --- exposure --- Morocco --- n/a --- qTOF-MS/MS

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This Book of Toxins comprises 11 original contributions and one review. New findings regarding presence of mycotoxins in aromatic and medicinal plants, mango and orange juice, juices, pulps, jams, and beer, from Morocco, Pakistan, and Portugal are reported. In these studies, innovative techniques to study their presence has been developed, including liquid chromatography coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry to analyse mycotoxins and conjugated mycotoxins. Novel strategies to detect mycotoxin presence and comparisons the characteristics of a rapid quantitative analysis of different mycotoxins (deoxynivalenol, ochratoxin A, patulin, sterigmatocystin, and zearalenone) are also presented using acetyl- and butyrylcholinesterases and photobacterial strains of luminescent cells. Additionally, toxicological effects of zearalenone metabolites and beauvericin on SH-SY5Y neuronal cells are presented. One important point in the control of mycotoxins is related to decontaminated strategies, and in this sense the efficacy of potentially probiotic fruit-derived Lactobacillus isolates in removing aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is presented. Other mycotoxin decontaminated techniques included in this book are electron beam irradiation (EBI) and degradation of zearalenone and ochratoxin A using ozone. Finally, a review that summarizes the newly discovered macrocyclic trichothecenes and their bioactivities over the last decade is included.The evaluation of the presence of mycotoxins in different matrices is achieved through different analytical tools (including quantitative or qualitative determinations). Studies of mycotoxin isolation, using chromatographyc equipment coupled to spectrometry detectors (QTrap-MS/MS, MS/MS tandem, QTOF-MS/MS), are the most useful tools to control their presence. All these studies represent key steps in the establishment of the limits of detection, limits of quantification, points of identification, accuracy, reproducibility, and repeatability of different procedures. The maximum permitted or recommended levels for mycotoxins in different matrices are within a wide range (including the levels tolerated by infants and animals). In addition, decontaminated strategies, as well as control and evaluation of exposure, are demanded by authorities and food safety systems.

Medicine --- patulin --- mango --- orange --- fruit-derived products --- food safety --- regulatory limits --- chitosan --- mycotoxins --- detoxification --- LC-MS/MS --- optimization --- Destruxins --- Bombyx mori --- BmArgRS --- BmLamin-C --- RNA helicase --- binding protein --- ozone --- electron beam irradiation --- degradation --- zearalenone --- ochratoxin A --- SH-SY5Y cells --- zearalenone derivates --- beauvericin --- MTT --- qTOF-MS/MS --- beer --- immunoaffinity clean-up --- LC-FD --- human risk assessment --- Enniatin B1 --- biomonitoring --- in vivo --- metabolomics --- high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) --- macrocyclic trichothecenes --- bioactivities --- putative biosynthetic pathway --- macrocycle formation --- entomopathogens --- mycoinsecticides --- secondary metabolites --- insect pathogenesis --- acetamiprid accumulation --- aflatoxin M1 --- Lactobacillus --- probiotics --- binding --- bioluminescent bacteria --- immobilized cells --- cholinesterase-based analysis --- analytical characteristics --- enzymatic detoxification --- co-occurrence --- Q-TOF-LC/MS --- exposure --- Morocco --- patulin --- mango --- orange --- fruit-derived products --- food safety --- regulatory limits --- chitosan --- mycotoxins --- detoxification --- LC-MS/MS --- optimization --- Destruxins --- Bombyx mori --- BmArgRS --- BmLamin-C --- RNA helicase --- binding protein --- ozone --- electron beam irradiation --- degradation --- zearalenone --- ochratoxin A --- SH-SY5Y cells --- zearalenone derivates --- beauvericin --- MTT --- qTOF-MS/MS --- beer --- immunoaffinity clean-up --- LC-FD --- human risk assessment --- Enniatin B1 --- biomonitoring --- in vivo --- metabolomics --- high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) --- macrocyclic trichothecenes --- bioactivities --- putative biosynthetic pathway --- macrocycle formation --- entomopathogens --- mycoinsecticides --- secondary metabolites --- insect pathogenesis --- acetamiprid accumulation --- aflatoxin M1 --- Lactobacillus --- probiotics --- binding --- bioluminescent bacteria --- immobilized cells --- cholinesterase-based analysis --- analytical characteristics --- enzymatic detoxification --- co-occurrence --- Q-TOF-LC/MS --- exposure --- Morocco