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Fighting global warming implies replacing fossil fuels by renewable energy sources. Wind has the benefit to be an easily accessible and infinitely renewable resource but is not evenly distributed in space and time. A solution to prevent energy scarcity in a decarbonised world would be the building of a global interconnected grid that provide populated regions with electricity generated in remote but resourceful areas. In this context, it has appeared that Greenland and Europe have complementary wind regimes. In particular, the southern tip of Greenland, Cape Farewell, has gained increasing interest for wind farm development as it is one of the windiest places on Earth. 

However, the development of such wind farms requires a better understanding of the wind field in that area, especially over the tundra. Because it is an observation-scarce country regional climate models are useful tools to study the Greenlandic wind regime. In this thesis, the Modèle Atmosphérique Régional (MAR) was used to model the wind speed over Cape Farewell. The model was first validated over the tundra by comparing its outputs with in situ observations obtained from various databases including the stations from the Katabata project put in place by the University of Liège. It was found that the model could fairly represent the wind field. Subsequently, the impact of the spatial resolution on the modelling of wind speed was investigated by running MAR at 5, 10, 15 and 20 km resolution and by comparing the outputs with in situ observations. It appeared that the improvement of correlation between the model and the observations was not linear as the resolution increased. This is very likely due to a better resolving of the topography by the model in higher resolutions. The resolution also seemed to have a stronger impact in winter when wind speeds are higher. Finally, the long-term wind speed variability over South Greenland was evaluated by analysing simulations of MAR forced by five CMIP6 models between 1981 and 2020 and under the scenario SSP5-8.5 between 2021 and 2100. No significant wind speed change was found between 1981 and 2020. However, a general decrease in wind speed can be expected between 2021 and 2100 in the area likely due to a reduced katabatic forcing over the ice sheet and a diminution in the meridional temperature gradient strength between the mid-latitudes and the Arctic, both induced by global warming. Yet an increase in wind speed is expected along the ice sheet edges due to stronger barrier winds, enhanced by the stronger temperature gradient between the cold ice sheet and the warmer tundra, again as a consequence of global warming. Lutter contre le réchauffement climatique implique de devoir remplacer les énergies fossiles par des énergies renouvelables. Le vent a pour intérêt d’être une ressource facilement accessible et infiniment exploitable mais n’est pas distribuée partout de la même façon et est variable dans le temps. Une solution pour éviter l’intermittence de la production d’énergie dans un monde décarbonisé serait de construire un réseau global qui fournirait les régions peuplées en électricité produite dans des régions reculées mais au vaste potentiel en énergies renouvelables. Dans ce contexte, il est apparu que le Groenland et l’Europe ont des régimes de vent complémentaires. En particulier, la pointe sud du Groenland, le Cap Farewell, reçoit un intérêt croissant pour le développement de parcs éoliens étant donné que c’est une des régions les plus venteuses du monde.

Cependant, l’installation d’éoliennes au sud du Groenland nécessite une bonne connaissance des champs de vent, particulièrement au-dessus de la toundra. Le pays étant pauvre en données d’observations, l’utilisation d’un modèle climatique régional est un outil précieux pour étudier les vents groenlandais. Dans cette étude, le Modèle Atmosphérique Régional (MAR) a été utilisé pour modéliser les vitesses vent au-dessus du Cap Farewell. Le modèle a, dans un premier temps, été validé au-dessus de la toundra en comparant ses résultats avec des données d’observations provenant de différentes bases de données, dont les stations mises en place par l’Université de Liège dans le cadre de son projet Katabata. Il en résulte que le MAR est en bon accord avec les observations. Ensuite, l’impact de la résolution spatiale sur la modélisation des vitesses de vent a été étudiée en faisant tourner le MAR à 5, 10, 15 et 20 km de résolution et en comparant les résultats avec des données d’observations. Il est apparu que l’amélioration de la corrélation entre le modèle et les observations n’augmente pas de manière linéaire à mesure que la résolution s’affine. Ceci est certainement dû au fait que la topographie est mieux résolue par le modèle à haute résolution. La résolution spatiale semble également avoir un impact plus important en hiver lorsque la vitesse du vent est plus grande. Finalement, la variabilité à long terme de la vitesse du vent au sud du Groenland a été étudiée par l’analyse de simulations du MAR forcé avec cinq modèles du CMIP6 entre 1981 et 2020 et sous le scénario SSP5-8.5 entre 2021 et 2100. Aucun changement significatif de vitesse n’a été trouvé entre 1981 et 2020. Cependant, une diminution générale de la vitesse du vent est attendue entre 2021 et 2100 probablement due à une réduction du forçage catabatique au-dessus de l’inlandsis et une diminution de l’intensité du gradient de température méridional entre les moyennes et les hautes latitudes, tous deux induits par le réchauffement climatique. Au contraire, le long des marges de l’inlandsis, une augmentation de la vitesse des vents est attendue à cause d’un renforcement des vents de barrière, générés par un gradient de température plus fort entre l’inlandsis froide et la toundra plus chaude, encore une fois à cause du réchauffement climatique.

MAR --- wind speed --- Greenland --- Physique, chimie, mathématiques & sciences de la terre > Sciences de la terre & géographie physique

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This helpful guide focuses on the wind load provisions of Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, Standard ASCE/SEI 7-10, that affect the planning, design, and construction of buildings for residential and commercial purposes. The 2010 revision of the Standard significantly reorganized the wind load provisions, expanding them from one to six chapters. Simplified methods of performing calculations for common situations were added to the Standard, and guidelines for components and cladding were gathered in a single chapter. Wind Loads provides users with tools and insight to apply the Standard in everyday practice. This revised and updated guide introduces readers to the relevant sections of the Standard and provides a comprehensive overview of the design procedures and the new wind speed maps. Ten chapters with 14 worked examples demonstrate the appropriate use of analytical and simplified procedures for calculating wind loads for a variety of common structure types. The guide also answers more than 30 frequently asked questions, grouped by topic. This book is an essential reference for practicing structural engineers, as it offers the most authoritative and in-depth interpretation of the wind loads section of Standard ASCE/SEI 7-10.

Wind-pressure. --- Wind resistant design. --- Buildings --- Gust loads. --- Wind loads --- Load factors --- Commercial buildings --- Professional societies --- Building design --- Roofs --- Residential buildings --- Wind speed --- Standards --- Aerodynamics.

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Wind Loads: Guide to the Wind Load Provisions of ASCE 7-16 provides a comprehensive overview of the wind load provisions in Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE/SEI 7-16. In this helpful guide, authors Coulbourne and Stafford focus on the provisions that affect the planning, design, and construction of buildings for residential and commercial purposes. Whereas the 2016 revision of ASCE 7 has retained the previously reorganized wind load provisions, the important changes in the ASCE 7-16 wind load provisions are Modified wind speed maps for the country west of the hurricane-prone region; A fourth wind speed map for Risk Category IV structures; Revised methodology to determine exposure category; Addition of a ground elevation factor to the velocity pressure equation; New provisions for roof top solar arrays, canopies, and bins, tanks, and silos; and Revised pressure coefficients for components and cladding for sloped roofs. Wind Loads provides users with tools and insight to apply ASCE 7-16 in everyday practice. This updated guide introduces readers to the relevant sections of the standard and provides an extensive overview of the design procedures and the revised wind speed maps.This guide includes 14 chapters with 10 worked examples of real-life design problems applying the appropriate use of analytical and simplified procedures for calculating wind loads for a variety of common structure types, as well as answers to more than 30 frequently asked questions, grouped by topic. This book is an essential reference for practicing structural engineers, as it offers the most authoritative and in-depth interpretation of the wind loads section of Standard ASCE/SEI 7-16.William L. Coulbourne, P.E., is a structural engineering consultant located in Annapolis, Maryland. He is a member of the ASCE 7 Wind Load Task Committee, and he coauthored the wind loads guide to ASCE/SEI 7-05 and ASCE/SEI 7-10.T. Eric Stafford, P.E. is a structural engineering consultant located in Birmingham, Alabama. He is a member of the ASCE 7 Wind Load Task Committee, and he has coauthored Significant Changes to the Minimum Design Load Provisions of ASCE 7-16 and authored Significant Changes to the Wind Load Provisions of ASCE 7-10: An Illustrated Guide.

Wind-pressure. --- Wind resistant design. --- Buildings --- Gust loads. --- Wind loads --- Load factors --- Professional societies --- Wind speed --- Consulting services --- Building design --- Wind forces --- Wind pressure --- United States --- Maryland --- Alabama --- Standards --- Aerodynamics.

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This paper integrates information on climate change, hydrodynamic models, and geographic overlays to assess the vulnerability of coastal areas in Bangladesh to larger storm surges and sea-level rise by 2050. The approach identifies polders (diked areas), coastal populations, settlements, infrastructure, and economic activity at risk of inundation, and estimates the cost of damage versus the cost of several adaptation measures. A 27-centimeter sea-level rise and 10 percent intensification of wind speed from global warming suggests the vulnerable zone increases in size by 69 percent given a +3-meter inundation depth and by 14 percent given a +1-meter inundation depth. At present, Bangladesh has 123 polders, an early warning and evacuation system, and more than 2,400 emergency shelters to protect coastal inhabitants from tidal waves and storm surges. However, in a changing climate, it is estimated that 59 of the 123 polders would be overtopped during storm surges and another 5,500 cyclone shelters (each with the capacity of 1,600 people) to safeguard the population would be needed. Investments including strengthening polders, foreshore afforestation, additional multi-purpose cyclone shelters, cyclone-resistant private housing, and further strengthening of the early warning and evacuation system would cost more than USD 2.4 billion with an annual recurrent cost of more than USD 50 million. However, a conservative damage estimate suggests that the incremental cost of adapting to these climate change related risks by 2050 is small compared with the potential damage in the absence of adaptation measures.

Afforestation --- Atmospheric pressure --- Climate --- Climate change --- Climate Change Economics --- Climate Change Mitigation and Green House Gases --- Concentrates --- Condensation --- Cyclones --- Environment --- Global climate change --- Global Environment Facility --- Global warming --- Hazard Risk Management --- Hurricanes --- IPCC --- Macroeconomics and Economic Growth --- Oceans --- Precipitation --- Rainfall --- Science and Technology Development --- Science of Climate Change --- Storms --- Surface temperature --- Tropical cyclones --- Upper atmosphere --- Urban Development --- Wind --- Wind speed

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The present book discusses three significant challenges of the built environment, namely regional and global climate change, vulnerability, and survivability under the changing climate. Synergies between local climate change, energy consumption of buildings and energy poverty, and health risks highlight the necessity to develop mitigation strategies to counterbalance overheating impacts. The studies presented here assess the underlying issues related to urban overheating. Further, the impacts of temperature extremes on the low-income population and increased morbidity and mortality have been discussed. The increasing intensity, duration, and frequency of heatwaves due to human-caused climate change is shown to affect underserved populations. Thus, housing policies on resident exposure to intra-urban heat have been assessed. Finally, opportunities to mitigate urban overheating have been proposed and discussed.

Mediterranean --- semi-arid --- drought --- standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index (SPEI) --- climate warming --- soil moisture --- urban heat islands --- environmental justice --- climate change --- redlining --- heatwave --- diurnal temperature range --- time-series --- relative risk --- health --- transpiration cooling --- coastal cities --- sap flow --- subtropical desert climate --- urban overheating --- cluster analysis --- air temperature --- wind speed and wind directions --- synoptic conditions --- urban heat island --- mitigation --- resilience --- survivability --- low-income population