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Lord Amherst's diplomatic mission to the Qing Court in 1816 was the second British embassy to China. The first led by Lord Macartney in 1793 had failed to achieve its goals. It was thought that Amherst had better prospects of success, but the intense diplomatic encounter that greeted his arrival ended badly. Amherst never appeared before the Jiaqing emperor and his embassy was expelled from Peking on the day it arrived. Historians have blamed Amherst for this outcome, citing his over-reliance on the advice of his Second Commissioner, Sir George Thomas Staunton, not to kowtow before the emperor. Detailed analysis of British sources reveal that Amherst was well informed on the kowtow issue and made his own decision for which he took full responsibility. Success was always unlikely because of irreconcilable differences in approach. China’s conduct of foreign relations based on the tributary system required submission to the emperor, thus relegating all foreign emissaries and the rulers they represented to vassal status, whereas British diplomatic practice was centred on negotiation and Westphalian principles of equality between nations. The Amherst embassy’s failure revised British assessments of China and led some observers to believe that force, rather than diplomacy, might be required in future to achieve British goals. The Opium War of 1840 that followed set a precedent for foreign interference in China, resulting in a century of 'humiliation’. This resonates today in President Xi Jinping’s call for ‘National Rejuvenation’ to restore China’s historic place at the centre of a new Sino-centric global order.

British & Irish history --- Asian history --- Modern history to 20th century: c 1700 to c 1900 --- China --- Britain --- British Empire --- William Pitt --- Amherst --- Canton --- Kowtow --- tributary system --- Amherst of Arracan, William Pitt Amherst, --- Jiaqing, --- Great Britain --- Foreign relations --- History --- Chia-chʻing, --- Chʻing Jen-tsung, --- Qing Renzong, --- Aixinjueluo, Yongyan, --- Yongyan, --- Yung-yen, --- 嘉庆, --- 嘉慶, --- 清仁宗, --- 爱新觉罗・颙琰, --- 爱新觉罗・永琰, --- 颙琰, --- 永琰, --- Amherst, --- Amherst of Arakan, --- Amherst of Arakan, William Pitt Amherst, --- Amherst of Arracan, --- Amherst, William Pitt Amherst, --- Holmesdale, --- Viscount Holmesdale,

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Famed for his masterful oratory and fearless criticism of parliamentary opponents, William Pitt the Elder (1708-78) distinguished himself through the strong leadership he provided during Britain's struggle against France in the Seven Years' War. Edited by his great-grandsons and first published between 1838 and 1840, this four-volume collection presents nearly forty years' worth of letters to and from the great statesman. Each volume also contains a useful list of the principal officers of state for the period covered, along with facsimile plates of letters and signatures by some of Pitt's eminent correspondents. Including six pre-1760 letters, Volume 2 (1838) chiefly covers the period from 1760 through to the end of July 1766. The accession of a hostile George III in October 1760 created difficulties for Pitt, which resulted in his resignation from government a year later. During his time in opposition, the Treaty of Paris concluded Anglo-French hostilities.

Statesmen --- Great Britain --- Politics and government --- Pitt, William, --- Chatham, William Pitt, --- P--tt, --- P., W. --- Pitt, Uilʹi︠a︡m, --- Uilʹi︠a︡m Pitt, --- W. P. --- Celebrated commoner,

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Famed for his masterful oratory and fearless criticism of parliamentary opponents, William Pitt the Elder (1708-78) distinguished himself through the strong leadership he provided during Britain's struggle against France in the Seven Years' War. Edited by his great-grandsons and first published between 1838 and 1840, this four-volume collection presents nearly forty years' worth of letters to and from the great statesman. Each volume also contains a useful list of the principal officers of state for the period covered, along with facsimile plates of letters and signatures by some of Pitt's eminent correspondents. Volume 3 (1839) covers the period from 1766 through to November 1770. Following Rockingham's resignation in July 1766, Pitt accepted a peerage and became the Earl of Chatham, forming a new ministry that lasted until 1768. As prime minister, he was constantly troubled by longstanding health problems.

Statesmen --- Great Britain --- Politics and government --- Pitt, William, --- Chatham, William Pitt, --- P--tt, --- P., W. --- Pitt, Uilʹi︠a︡m, --- Uilʹi︠a︡m Pitt, --- W. P. --- Celebrated commoner,

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Pitt, William, -- 1759-1806 -- Speech of the Right Honourable William Pitt on a motion for the abolition of the slave trade --- Slave trade --- Pitt --- Burges

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Currie, James, -- 1756-1805 -- Letter, commercial and political, addressed to the Rt. Hon. William Pitt --- Great Britain -- Politics and government --- Great Britain -- Foreign relations -- France --- France -- Foreign relations -- Great Britain