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This paper presents the findings of an impact evaluation to assess the performance and sustainability of the demand responsive community-based approach toward rural water supply in the state of Kerala, India. To achieve the study's objectives, conceptual definitions of the "performance" and "sustainability" of rural water supply schemes were first developed, as were indicators for their systematic measurement. Performance and sustainability indicators for demand responsive approaches were compared with the more conventional supply-based approach to rural water supply. The study found that participatory community driven water supply schemes were more successful in delivering adequate, regular, and quality water supply, experienced fewer breakdowns and water shortages, and enjoyed higher consumer satisfaction with the quality of service delivery. The success of the community-based approach demonstrates that people are willing to contribute toward the capital costs of the schemes and pay for the water they use for a better service delivery. The findings of this paper suggest that the community-based approach can be a superior alternative to traditional supply driven models in expanding and improving water service delivery in rural areas.

Demand Responsive Approach --- Drinking Water --- Rural Water Schemes --- Sustainability

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This paper utilizes information from the 2015 Nigeria National Water and Sanitation Survey to identify the extent, timing, as well as reasons for the failure of water points. The paper finds that more than 38 percent of all improved water points are nonfunctional. The results indicate that nearly 27 percent of the water points are likely to fail in the first year of construction, while nearly 40 percent are likely to fail in the long run (after 8-10 years). The paper considers the reasons behind these failures, looking at whether they can or cannot be controlled. During the first year, a water point's location-the political region and underlying hydrogeology-has the greatest impact on functionality. Other factors-specifically, those that can be controlled in the design, implementation, and operational stages-also contribute significantly. As water points age, their likelihood of failure is best predicted by factors that cannot be modified, as well as by the technology used. The paper concludes that, to improve the sustainability of water points, much can be done at the design, implementation, and operational stages. Over time, technology upgrades are important.

Access To Water --- Drinking Water --- Engineering --- Environment --- Environmental Engineering --- Health and Sanitation --- Health, Nutrition and Population --- Hydrology --- Inequality --- Poverty Reduction --- Rural & Small Town Water & Sanitation --- Rural Development --- Rural Water --- Rural Water Supply and Sanitation --- Safe Water Supply --- Sanitary Environmental Engineering --- Sanitation and Sewerage --- Science and Technology Development --- Small Private Water Supply Providers --- Town Water Supply and Sanitation --- Water & Human Health --- Water And Sanitation --- Water Resources --- Water Schemes --- Water Supply and Sanitation --- Water Supply and Sanitation Economics