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De serie 'Werkdocumenten' omvat stukken die in het kader van de werkzaamheden van de WRR tot stand zijn gekomen en die op aanvraag door de raad beschikbaar worden gesteld. De verantwoordelijkheid voor de inhoud en de ingenomen standpunten berust bij de auteurs. The 'Working documents' series comprises documents that have been produced as part of the work of the WRR and that are made available by the council on request. The responsibility for the content and the positions taken rests with the authors.

Transport policy

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Small island states are one of the most affected areas by sea-level rise, and sustainable transport development is crucial to their transition towards resiliency. However, their special spatial situations, insularity, geographic remoteness, small populations, and small economies resulted in high transport costs and car dependencies. The book moves away from the conventional focus on urban areas in the Global North and tourism. It gives a different perspective on sustainable transport, travelling, and commuting in the Caribbean and Europe. The authors provide research-based insights and show the state-of-the-art and future approaches for policy-makers, academics, and practitioners. Even beyond small island state research, the book offers an innovative outlook.

Literary theory --- Sustainable transport --- Small island states --- Micro-Mobility --- Transport policy --- Smart mobility

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Small island states are one of the most affected areas by sea-level rise, and sustainable transport development is crucial to their transition towards resiliency. However, their special spatial situations, insularity, geographic remoteness, small populations, and small economies resulted in high transport costs and car dependencies. The book moves away from the conventional focus on urban areas in the Global North and tourism. It gives a different perspective on sustainable transport, travelling, and commuting in the Caribbean and Europe. The authors provide research-based insights and show the state-of-the-art and future approaches for policy-makers, academics, and practitioners. Even beyond small island state research, the book offers an innovative outlook.

Sustainable transport --- Small island states --- Micro-Mobility --- Transport policy --- Smart mobility

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Most policy makers readily acknowledge the economic, environmental, and social benefits of moving freight and passengers by waterways. However, why do many countries struggle to develop and revive their inland waterways transportation (IWT)? One reason is because of the dearth of successful examples of IWT revival. Aside from the United States and Europe, which have been relatively successful, the experience of many emerging countries has been a tale of intensive use followed by total collapse of the IWT sector. However, the combination of societal, economic, and environmental imperatives is motivating reassessment, as countries look to develop sustainable transport systems and to curb greenhouse gas emissions from the transport sector. China's experience has similarities to the experience of many countries and offers valuable lessons. This report is the result of an in-depth retrospective study of IWT in China and fills a gap in global knowledge. From an IWT system that carried less than 150 million tons in 1978, IWT in China carried 3.74 billion tons of cargo in 2018--six times more than either the European Union or the United States. China now has the busiest IWT system in the world. China's leadership in IWT development started with years of investment in infrastructure that transformed lowgrade waterways, allowing larger vessels to use the waterways, which resulted in higher transport efficiency and lower cost. China also invested in development of skills and technical know-how. To date there are 127,000 km of inland waterways in China that have high-quality navigability and a good safety record. During the period of rapid economic development, China also adopted or developed internationally recognized technical innovations for river classification, vessel replacement, navigation technology, and environmental protection. What China achieved is informative. In particular, how and why China improved IWT provides valuable lessons for other countries.

Economic Corridors --- Greenhouse Gas Emissions --- Inland Waterways --- Logistics --- Modal Shift --- Multimodal Infrastructure --- Sustainable Infrastructure --- Transport Policy --- Transportation

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This paper draws lessons from an original randomized experiment in Malawi. In order to understand why roads in relatively good condition in rural areas may not be used by buses, a minibus service was subsidized over a six-month period over a distance of 20 kilometers to serve five villages. Using randomly allocated prices for use of the bus, this experiment demonstrates that at very low prices, bus usage is high. Bus usage decreases rapidly with increased prices. However, based on the results on take-up and minibus provider surveys, the experiment demonstrates that at any price, low (with high usage) or high (with low usage), a bus service provider never breaks even on this road. This can contribute to explain why walking or cycling is so widespread on most rural roads in Sub-Saharan Africa. In terms of policy implications, this experiment explains that motorized services need to be subsidized; otherwise a road in good condition will most probably not lead to provision of service at an affordable price for the local population.

Markets and Market Access --- Randomized --- Roads --- Rural --- Rural Development --- Rural Roads & Transport --- Transport Economics Policy & Planning --- Transport in Urban Areas --- Transport policy --- Transport services --- Urban Transport --- Malawi