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The startle response (response to a loud noise, for instance) is a reflex that is wired into the brain at a very basic level. Although everybody has such a reflex, the strength and quickness of the startle response is modified by a subject's underlying psychoneurological state. The nature of this modification, therefore, is now seen as an accurate, objective measure of very deep neurological processes. This book is a comprehensive volume devoted to startle modification and offers a unique overview of the methods, measurement, physiology and psychology of the phenomenon, particularly modification of the human startle eyeblink. Chapters are written by many of the world's leading investigators in the field and include coverage of elicitation and recording of startle blink, issues in measurement and quantification, the neurophysiological basis of the basic startle response and its modification by attentional and affective processes, psychological processes underlying short and long lead interval modification (including prepulse inhibition), applications of startle modification to the study of psychopathology, including schizophrenia, affective disorders, and psychopathy, developmental processes and relationships with ERPs and behavioural measures of information processing.

Startle reaction. --- Cognitive neuroscience --- Methodology.

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Behaviour. --- Chicks. --- Deprivation. --- Hen. --- Response. --- Responses. --- Startle.

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Escape pattern (Physiology) --- Escape reaction --- Escape response --- Mobilisatiereactie --- Mobilisation [Réaction de ] --- Reactie [Mobilisatie] --- Réaction de mobilisation --- Startle pattern --- Startle reaction --- Startle response --- Cognitive neuroscience --- Startle Reaction. --- Blinking. --- Moro, Réflexe de --- Neurosciences cognitives --- Methodology --- Méthodologie --- Reflex, Startle. --- Moro, Réflexe de --- Méthodologie

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Habituation describes the progressive decrease of the amplitude or frequency of a motor response to repeated sensory stimulation that is not caused by sensory receptor adaptation or motor fatigue. Habituation can occur in different time scales: habituation within a testing session has been termed short-term habituation, whereas habituation across testing sessions has been termed long-term habituation. Generally, the more spaced the stimuli for inducing habituation are presented (i.e. the slower habituation is induced), the longer it seems to take to recover the behavioural response to its initial magnitude. Habituation is opposed by behavioural sensitization, which is thought to be an independent mechanism that leads to an increased behavioural response, especially if the sensory stimulus is annoying or aversive. Habituation provides an important mechanism for filtering sensory information, as it allows filtering out irrelevant stimuli and thereby focussing on important stimuli, a prerequisite for many cognitive tasks. The importance is demonstrated in mental disorders that are associated with disruptions in habituation, e.g. schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorders. The inability to filter out irrelevant information in patients with these disorders strongly correlates with disruptions in higher cognitive functions, such as in different types of memory and attention. Habituation is also considered to be the most basic form of non-associative implicit learning, and it can be observed throughout the animal kingdom. Based on the importance of habituation for cognitive function and therefore for the survival of an animal, it is assumed that habituation mechanisms are highly conserved across species. On the other hand, there is emerging evidence for a multitude of homo- and heterosynaptic mechanisms underlying habituation, depending on the modality of sensory stimulation, the level of sensory information processing where habituation occurs, and the temporal composition of sensory stimulation. Eric Kandel used the sea hare Aplysia in order to study habituation mechanisms of the gill withdrawal reflex; however, the molecular mechanisms remain largely elusive to date. A multitude of different organisms, behaviours, and experimental approaches have been used since in order to study habituation, but still surprisingly little is known about the underlying mechanisms. New insights also come from an unexpected side: in the recent past, groups that have been studying molecular mechanisms underlying short- and long-term synaptic plasticity phenomenons in different parts of the rodent brain are starting to link these plasticity processes to behavioural habituation. The scope of this Frontier Research Topic is to give an overview over the concept of habituation, different animal and behavioural models used for studying habituation mechanisms, as well as the different synaptic and molecular processes suggested to play a role in behavioural habituation through Original Research Articles, Methods, Hypothesis & Theory Articles, and Reviews.

Learning and memory. --- Habituation. --- Sensorimotor gating --- startle --- learning and memory --- habituation --- spike adaptation --- synaptic mechanism --- animal model

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Music has been used successfully to affect behavior of various species. Gvaryahu et al.4 found that classical music improved growth rate in chickens. Uetake et al.5 found that cows were more likely to approach and enter a robotic milking parlor if milking times were signaled by music. Music also has been used to reduce anxiety in human patients.6 Country music tended to calm the ponies most and jazz the least. Albright et al.7 found that cows were more willing to enter a milking parlor in which country music was played than one in which rock music was to be heard. Ponies in this study responded to rock music with behaviors that were intermediate between classical and country music when time spent eating was measured but vocalized less when rock music was played. Cows exposed to various types of music produced most milk when classical music was played and least when rock and roll was played.8 Cows were restless when no music was played but this was not true of the ponies in this study. The stress of separation may not be the best test of the effect of music on equine behavior. If music were played while sudden noises such as the crash of a metal bucket or a backfire, the horses might startle less. Under normal barn conditions, the music and the type of music may affect the caretakers' job satisfaction, which in turn will effect their ability to handle the horses.

Ability. --- Anxiety. --- Behavior. --- Chicken. --- Chickens. --- Cow. --- Cows. --- Equine. --- Growth. --- Horse. --- Horses. --- Human. --- Job. --- Milk. --- Noise. --- Ponies. --- Separation. --- Startle. --- Stress. --- Test. --- Time.