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Many experts believe that low-cost mitigation opportunities in agriculture are abundant and comparable in scale to those found in the energy sector. They are mostly located in developing countries and have to do with how land is used. By investing in projects under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), countries can tap these opportunities to meet their own Kyoto Protocol obligations. The CDM has been successful in financing some types of agricultural projects, including projects that capture methane or use agricultural by-products as an energy source. But agricultural land-use projects are scarce under the CDM. This represents a missed opportunity to promote sustainable rural development since land-use projects that sequester carbon in soils can help reverse declining soil fertility, a root cause of stagnant agricultural productivity. This paper reviews the process leading to current CDM implementation rules and describes how the rules, in combination with challenging features of land-use projects, raise transaction costs and lower demand for land-use credits. Procedures by which developed countries assess their own mitigation performance are discussed as a way of redressing current constraints on CDM investments. Nevertheless, even with improvements to the CDM, an under-investment in agricultural land-use projects is likely, since there are hurdles to capturing associated ancillary benefits privately. Alternative approaches outside the CDM are discussed, including those that build on recent decisions taken by governments in Copenhagen and Cancun.

Agriculture --- Banks & Banking Reform --- Clean Development Mechanism --- Climate Change --- Climate Change Mitigation and Green House Gases --- Energy and Environment --- Environment and Energy Efficiency --- Environmental Economics & Policies --- Land Use --- Mitigation --- Rural Development --- Sequestration --- Soil Carbon

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Greenhouse gas emissions are largely determined by how energy is created and used, and policies designed to encourage mitigation efforts reflect this reality. However, an unintended consequence of an energy-focused strategy is that the set of policy instruments needed to tap mitigation opportunities in agriculture is incomplete. In particular, market-linked incentives to achieve mitigation targets are disconnected from efforts to better manage carbon sequestered in agricultural land. This is especially important for many countries in Eastern Europe and Central Asia where once-productive land has been degraded through poor agricultural practices. Often good agricultural policies and prudent natural resource management can compensate for missing links to mitigation incentives, but only partially. At the same time, two international project-based programs, Joint Implementation and the Clean Development Mechanism, have been used to finance other types of agricultural mitigation efforts worldwide. Even so, a review of projects suggests that few countries in Eastern Europe and Central Asia take full advantage of these financing paths. This paper discusses mitigation opportunities in the region, the reach of current mitigation incentives, and missed mitigation opportunities in agriculture. The paper concludes with a discussion of alternative policies designed to jointly promote mitigation and co-benefits for agriculture and the environment.

Agriculture --- Climate change --- Climate Change Economics --- Climate Change Mitigation and Green House Gases --- Degraded land --- Energy and Environment --- Environmental Economics & Policies --- Greenhouse gases --- Mitigation --- Rural Development --- Soil carbon sequestration --- Wetlands

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After the presentation of the state of art about the importance to study the GHG emissions by terrestrial agroecosystemandtherelationwiththeenvironmentalconditions, thedifferentwaystorealizedthisstudyarepresented. First, the different measurement methods are explained. Secondly, the principles of modelling are described followed by an history of the ecosystem models and the ways to classify them. Actually, the models have different objectives and consequently are composed differently. The model developed in the framework of this thesis aims to study the temporal dynamics (from intra-day to inter-annual) of the processes that compose the water, carbon and nitrogen cycle and lead to GHG exchanges between atmosphere and grasslands or croplands. According to those objectives, the model is a one dimension (vertical), dynamic and mechanistic model with a time step of 30 minutes. This model is called TADA, for Terrestrial Agro-ecosystem dynamics Analysis. It is created by using the forest model ASPECTS as a base, by adapting the processes that are specific to crop and grass ecosystems (e.g. phenology, carbon and nitrogen allocation, etc) and by implementing some new necessary process (e.g. management operation, grazing effect, etc). This project is a team work, the different parts of the code are divided by three for the modification, the implementation and the calibration. This thesis focuses on the soil organic carbon, the nitrogen cycle and the management operations. The carbon cycle and the phenology are presented in Delhez (2019) and the water cycle and grazing effect by Dumont (2019). Mineralization, humification and nitrification processes are calibrated in this work by using measurement data acquired on experimental sites located at Dorinne and Lonzée. The results show a lack of measurement data to calibrate the model correctly. After the calibration (including the calibration from the other thesis), the grassland version of the model runs to simulate the year 2013 at Dorinne and the cropland version to simulate the winter wheat crop of 2015 at Lonzée. The modelled results are discussed and compared to the measurement and to the literature. For the cropland, all the carbon fluxes are underestimate which could be a chain reaction due to one process, probably a too low leaf nitrogen content. For the grassland, the values are consistent with the measurements. The nitrous oxide fluxes modelled in the two ecosystems are in the order of magnitude of the value reported in the literature. Different proposals to ameliorate the model or to improve the calibration are then presented in regard with the different results reached. Après la présentation de l’état de l’art sur l’importance d’étudier les émissions de gaz à effet de serre (GES) par les agro-écosystèmes terrestres et leurs relations avec les conditions environnementales, les différentes manières de les étudier sont présentées. Dans un premier temps, les différentes méthodes de mesure sont expliquées. Deuxièmement, les principes de la modélisation sont décrits, suivi d’un historique des modèles d’écosystème et de leur classification. Les modèles ont en effet des objectifs différents et sont donc composés différemment. Le modèle développé dans le cadre de ce travail vise à étudier la dynamique temporelle (de l’intra-journalier à l’interannuelle) des processus qui composent le cycle de l’eau, du carbone et de l’azote et les échanges de GES entre l’atmosphère et les prairies ou les terres cultivées. Selon ces objectifs, le modèle est mécanistique, dynamique avec un pas de temps de 30 minutes et est composé d’une seule dimension (verticale). Ce modèle est appelé TADA, pour "Terrestrial Agro-Ecosystem Dynamics Analysis". Il est créé à partir du modèle ASPECTS, fonctionnant sur les écosystèmes de forêt, comme base et en adaptant les processus spécifiques aux écosystèmes de cultures et de prairies (par exemple: la phénologie, l’allocation de carbone et d’azote, etc.) et en incorporant certains nouveaux processus nécessaires (par exemple: la gestion, l’effet de pâturage, etc.). Ce projet est un travail d’équipe, les différentes parties du code sont divisées en trois pour la modification et la calibration. Ce travail porte sur le carbone organique du sol, le cycle de l’azote et les opérations de management. Le cycle du carbone et la phénologie sont présentés dans Delhez (2019) et le cycle de l’eau ainsi que l’effet de pâturage par Dumont (2019). Dans ce travail, les processus de minéralisation, d’humification et de nitrification sont calibrés en utilisant des donnéesdemesureacquisessurdessitesexpérimentauxsituésàDorinneetàLonzée. Les résultats obtenus indiquent
un manque de données de mesure pour calibrer correctement le modèle. Après la calibration (y compris celles de Delhez (2019) et de Dumont (2019)), la version du modèle pour les pâturages simule l’année 2013 à Dorinne et la version pour les cultures simule la croissance de blé d’hiver de 2015 de Lonzée. Les résultats modélisés sont discutés et comparés aux mesures et à la littérature. Pour les cultures, tous les flux de carbone se révèlent sous-estimés, ce qui peut être une réaction en chaîne due à un autre processus, probablement une trop faible teneur en azote dans les feuilles. Pour les prairies, les valeurs sont cohérentes avec la mesure. Les flux de protoxyde d’azote modélisés dans les deux écosystèmes correspondent à l’ordre de grandeur des valeurs rapportées dans la littérature. Différentes propositions d’amélioration du modèle ou de calibration sont ensuite élaborées en fonction des différents résultats obtenus.

Modèle mécanistique --- Cycle de l'azote --- Carbone du sol --- Pratiques agriculturales --- Flux de GES --- Mechanistic modelling --- Nitrogen cycle --- Soil carbon --- Management practices --- GHG fluxes --- Sciences du vivant > Sciences de l'environnement & écologie

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The World Bank is making strides in mainstreaming gender-sensitive approaches to climate action on the ground. Ensuring that men and women have equal access to education, economic opportunities, productive inputs and equal chances to become socially and politically active can generate broad productivity gains, and lead to more inclusive and greener development path for all. For the World Bank, gender analysis is an integral aspect of the upstream social analysis that is required to inform both development policy lending (DPL) and investment lending (IL). It helps identify and suggest ways to mitigate possible risks in terms of exacerbating gender inequality, and highlight opportunities to enhance positive outcomes for gender equality. The entry points for such upstream gender analysis include Poverty and Social Impact Analysis (PSIA) in the case of DPL, climate financing mechanisms are beginning to adopt gender-sensitive approaches in program design and results frameworks, but more needs to be done. Much can be done to improve the effectiveness of climate finance and actions on the ground by ensuring that gender relations are taken into account in design, implementation, and measurement of results. But this can only be achieved through a concerted effort to apply a gender lens in climate finance mechanisms. It matters for development, and it matters for effective action on climate change.

Access to Education --- Access to Finance --- Access to Information --- Afforestation --- Air Pollution --- Capacity Building --- Carbon Emissions --- Carbon Finance --- Carbon Intensity --- Climate --- Climate Change --- Climate Change Economics --- Climate Change Mitigation and Green House Gases --- Climate Risk Management --- Economic Opportunities --- Electricity --- Emissions --- Empowerment --- Energy Consumption --- Energy Efficiency --- Energy Policy --- Environment --- Finance and Financial Sector Development --- Forests --- Gender --- Gender Issues --- Informal Sector --- Macroeconomics and Economic Growth --- Privacy --- Productivity --- Renewable Energy --- Risk Management --- Savings --- Sexual Harassment --- Social Development --- Soil Carbon --- United Nations --- Violence --- Vulnerable Groups

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Climate change presents a profound challenge to food security and development. Negative impacts from climate change are likely to be greatest in regions that are currently food insecure and may even be significant in those regions that have made large gains in reducing food insecurity over the past half-century. Adaptation in the agricultural sector is being given a high priority within this effort because of the inherent sensitivity of food production to climate and the strong inter-linkages that exist between climate, agriculture, and economic growth and development. The purpose of this report is to review the major effects of climate change on the agricultural sector; to examine the causes of vulnerability; and to suggest a range of potential options and investment opportunities for supporting adaptation efforts and, more generally, for building adaptive capacity. This report primarily focuses on appropriate strategies for adapting to climate change impacts that are projected to occur over the next one to two decades, although several issues covered in this report are important for long-term adaptation needs as well. This report also describes opportunities for linking adaptation and mitigation, and it discusses the importance of mainstreaming adaptation into development.

Agricultural Research --- Agriculture --- Aquifers --- Barley --- Capacity Building --- Carbon Dioxide --- Carbon Sequestration --- Clean Development Mechanism --- Climate Change --- Climate Change Economics --- Climate Change Mitigation and Green House Gases --- Climate Risk Management --- Crops --- Decision Making --- Deforestation --- Desertification --- Emissions --- Environment --- Evapotranspiration --- Floods --- Food Production --- Food Safety --- Forests --- Glaciers --- Global Environment Facility --- Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change --- Irrigation --- Livestock --- Logging --- Macroeconomics and Economic Growth --- Methane --- Monsoons --- Population Growth --- Precipitation --- Property Rights --- Rainfall --- Rainwater Harvesting --- Rainy Season --- Rice --- Risk Management --- Rural Development --- Soil Carbon --- Storms --- Streams --- Surface Water --- Temperature --- Trees --- Water Supply and Sanitation