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This study examines the emergence and evolution in China of a tradition of secret societies. The author suggests that the secret society is properly understood as one variety of the 'brotherhood association', a category that encompasses a range of popular fraternal organizations that flourished in the early and mid-Qing period. Many early associations became an accepted part of local society practising initiation rituals which drew on popular religious traditions. He goes on to examine the transformation of these informal brotherhoods into the rebellious secret societies of the nineteenth century. Making use of newly available archival material, the author re-examines the idea that their members were early 'nationalist rebels' or that secret societies should be seen as 'self-help associations'. He briefly compares secret societies in China to those in Chinese communities in precolonial and colonial Southeast Asia.

History of Asia --- History of civilization --- Qing [Dynasty] --- anno 1700-1799 --- anno 1800-1899 --- anno 1600-1699 --- China --- Secret societies --- Sociétés secrètes --- History --- Histoire --- Chine --- History. --- S11/0810 --- -Fraternities --- Hazing --- Rites and ceremonies --- Ritual --- Societies --- Sociology --- Initiations (into trades, societies, etc.) --- China: Social sciences--Secret societies, triads --- -S11/0810 --- -China: Social sciences--Secret societies, triads --- -Secret societies --- Sociétés secrètes --- Cina --- Kinë --- Cathay --- Chinese National Government --- Chung-kuo kuo min cheng fu --- Republic of China (1912-1949) --- Kuo min cheng fu (China : 1912-1949) --- Chung-hua min kuo (1912-1949) --- Kina (China) --- National Government (1912-1949) --- China (Republic : 1912-1949) --- People's Republic of China --- Chinese People's Republic --- Chung-hua jen min kung ho kuo --- Central People's Government of Communist China --- Chung yang jen min cheng fu --- Chung-hua chung yang jen min kung ho kuo --- Central Government of the People's Republic of China --- Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo --- Zhong hua ren min gong he guo --- Kitaĭskai︠a︡ Narodnai︠a︡ Respublika --- Činská lidová republika --- RRT --- Republik Rakjat Tiongkok --- KNR --- Kytaĭsʹka Narodna Respublika --- Jumhūriyat al-Ṣīn al-Shaʻbīyah --- RRC --- Kitaĭ --- Kínai Népköztársaság --- Chūka Jinmin Kyōwakoku --- Erets Sin --- Sin --- Sāthāranarat Prachāchon Čhīn --- P.R. China --- PR China --- Chung-kuo --- Zhongguo --- Zhonghuaminguo (1912-1949) --- Zhong guo --- République Populaire de Chine --- República Popular China --- Catay --- VR China --- VRChina --- 中國 --- 中国 --- 中华人民共和国 --- Jhongguó --- Bu̇gu̇de Nayiramdaxu Dundadu Arad Ulus --- Bu̇gu̇de Nayiramdaqu Dumdadu Arad Ulus --- Bu̇gd Naĭramdakh Dundad Ard Uls --- Khi︠a︡tad --- Kitad --- Dumdadu Ulus --- Dumdad Uls --- Думдад Улс --- Kitajska --- -History of Asia --- Qing dynasty, 1644-1912 --- Secret societies - China - History. --- China - History - Ch°ing dynasty, 1644-1912.