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Age. --- Analysis. --- Communication. --- Distress. --- Function. --- Mouse pup. --- Mouse. --- Pups. --- Sound.

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Absence. --- Maternal. --- Nursing. --- Pups. --- Rat. --- Rats. --- Rattus norvegicus. --- Rattus-norvegicus. --- Strain differences.

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Mammals owe part of their evolutionary success to the harmonious exchanges of information, energy and immunity between females and their offspring. This functional reciprocity is vital for the survival and normal development of infants, and for the inclusive fitness of parents. It is best seen in the intense exchanges taking place around the mother's offering of, and the infant's quest for, milk. All mammalian females have evolved behavioural and sensory methods of stimulating and guiding their inexperienced newborns to their mammae, whereas newborns have coevolved means to respond to them efficiently. Among these cues, maternal odours have repeatedly been shown to be involved, but the chemical identity and pheromonal nature of these cues have not been definitively characterized until now. Here we focus on the nature of an odour signal emitted by the female rabbit to which newborn pups respond by attraction and oral grasping, and provide a complete chemical and behavioural description of a pheromone of mammary origin in a mammalian species.

Cues. --- Development. --- Energy. --- Female. --- Females. --- Immunity. --- Infant. --- Mammals. --- Maternal. --- Method. --- Milk. --- Mother. --- Odour. --- Pheromones. --- Pups. --- Rabbit. --- Sensory. --- Success. --- Survival.

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Regurgitation is the disgorging of partially digested food, usually carried out to feed pups and young animals. It seems to be an important step in weaning in some canids, facilitating the transfer from suckling to eating solid food. The aim of this study was to estimate, on a population basis, how common regurgitation is in domestic dog breeds, the circumstances of the behaviour and effects of breed and environment. This was achieved by a questionnaire answered by 263 Swedish dog breeders. More than 60% of the breeders had observed regurgitation among their dogs and some of the breeders had also observed that dogs other than the mothers regurgitated. Although not significant, data indicated that differences between breeds existed. No environmental influence was found, except for an effect of supplying pups early with complementary food, which increased the frequency of regurgitation. There was a strong connection between regurgitation and begging behaviour from the pups. The age of the pups when they first received regurgitated food, around 4 weeks, was consistent between breeds. Pups had to beg more to get others than the mother to regurgitate. The results show that regurgitation is widespread among domestic dogs and constitutes a normal behaviour. The timing of behaviour during lactation and the interaction between pups and regurgitating animals may suggest that regurgitation is an important element in the weaning process.

Age. --- Animal. --- Animals. --- Behaviour. --- Breed. --- Canids. --- Dog. --- Dogs. --- Domestic dog. --- Environment. --- Food. --- Frequency. --- Interaction. --- Lactation. --- Mother. --- Parental behavior. --- Parental behaviour. --- Population. --- Pups. --- Questionnaire. --- Regurgitation. --- Weaning. --- Young.

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This study investigated the role of maternal behavior on the long-term effects of postnatal manipulation (15 min of daily separation from the dam and exposure to clean bedding from Day 1 to Day 14 of postnatal life) on emotionality in the mouse. Mothers were treated with an antianxiety agent (Chlordiazepoxide: 5 mg/kg), daily upon removal of the litter from the nest. Emotionality in adult offspring was tested in the elevated plus maze. Mice manipulated during postnatal development were more explorative and less anxious than unhandled mice, but this effect was not observable in the offspring of Chlordiazepoxide-treated dams. No effect of maternal Chlordiazepoxide was observed in unhandled offspring. The pharmacological treatment of the mother did not affect either pups' ultrasonic calling during separation, or maternal behavior far apart from the daily manipulation sessions. By contrast, Chlordiazepoxide-treated dams were less responsive toward pups upon reunion following daily separation. This alteration of dams' behavior was not related to alterations in the amount of ultrasonic calls emitted by pups during reunion. Finally, when dams were daily injected with Chlordiazepoxide far apart from pups' removal, the pharmacological treatment was devoid of effects. These results support the view that the mother-infant interaction which follows separation plays a major role in determining the effects of postnatal manipulations on adult emotionality.

Adult. --- Bedding. --- Behavior. --- Chloradiazepoxide. --- Development. --- Elevated plus maze. --- Emotionality. --- Exposure. --- Interaction. --- Life. --- Long-term. --- Maternal behavior. --- Maternal behaviour. --- Maternal separation. --- Maternal-behavior. --- Maternal. --- Mice. --- Mother. --- Mouse. --- Nest. --- Play. --- Postnatal-development. --- Pups. --- Separation. --- Stress. --- Treatment. --- Ultrasonic calls. --- Ultrasound.