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Microeconomics --- Bedrijfsorganisatie --- Organisation des entreprises --- Prijzen --- Prix --- Price discrimination --- Pricing policy --- Prix, Politique des --- Discrimination --- 330.13 --- 338.5 --- politique des prix --- controle des prix --- prijsbeleid --- prijscontrole

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Between 1999 and 2008, world oil prices more than quadrupled in real terms. For oil importers, vulnerability to oil price increases, defined as the share of gross domestic product spent on net oil imports, rose considerably. Considering medians, low-income countries had the highest vulnerability in 2008 and the highest increase in vulnerability between 1999 and 2008. When changes in vulnerability were decomposed into several contributing factors, more than two-thirds of 170 countries studied were found to have offset the increase in the value of oil consumption by reducing the oil intensity of gross domestic product. Oil intensity fell in more than half the countries in every income group and in every region of the world, driven by falling energy intensity and, to a lesser extent, the oil share of energy. This study also examines the degree of pass-through to consumers of increases in world prices of gasoline, diesel, kerosene, and liquefied petroleum gas between January 2009 and January 2012, when oil prices in nominal U.S. dollars more than doubled. Retail fuel prices varied by two orders of magnitude in 2012, and oil-exporting countries were far less likely to pass on price increases. Gasoline had the highest pass-through, followed by diesel, liquefied petroleum gas, and kerosene. The median pass-through increased with income for gasoline, diesel, and kerosene, but was highest in low-income countries for liquefied petroleum gas. Despite divergent pricing policies, the pass-through coefficients of different fuels were strongly positively correlated, suggesting that the degrees to which domestic prices tracked world prices were comparable for the four fuels in many countries.

Decomposition analysis --- Diesel --- Energy --- Energy and Environment --- Energy intensity --- Energy Production and Transportation --- Environment and Energy Efficiency --- Gasoline --- Kerosene --- Liquefied petroleum gas --- Markets and Market Access --- Oil imports --- Oil intensity --- Oil pricing policy --- Oil Refining & Gas Industry --- Pass-through --- Vulnerability

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Subsidies and cross-subsidies in the energy sector are common throughout Eastern Europe and Central Asia. In Belarus, revenues from an industrial tariff on electricity are used to cross-subsidize heating for households. Input-output (IO) data and a household consumption survey are used to analyze the distributional impacts of this cross-subsidization. This paper illustrates cost shares and electricity-intensity of different sectors and consumption categories and uses the IO data to obtain first-order estimates of the distributional incidence of policy reform. The paper then analyzes distributional impacts of subsidy reform with a Computable General Equilibrium model. Although poorer households benefit from reduced heating costs, the increase in prices of other consumer goods due to higher electricity prices more than offsets the benefits they receive from the subsidies. The analysis finds that the current cross-subsidies are regressive, and policy reform would be highly progressive.

Agriculture --- Approach --- Banking --- Benchmark --- Benchmark data --- Capital --- Capital returns --- Commodities --- Commodity --- Communication --- Competition --- Consumer demand --- Consumer good --- Consumer goods --- Consumer groups --- Consumer prices --- Consumers --- Consumption --- Cost increase --- Cost of electricity --- Cost of funds --- Costs --- Customer --- Customers --- Demand --- Developing economy --- Development policy --- Distribution --- District heating --- Domestic market --- Domestic price --- Economic cooperation --- Economic development --- Economic statistics --- Economic systems --- Economic theory & research --- Economics literature --- Elasticity --- Elasticity of substitution --- Electricity --- Electricity prices --- Emerging markets --- Energy --- Energy price --- Energy prices --- Energy production and transportation --- Equilibrium --- Equilibrium analysis --- Equilibrium price --- Equilibrium prices --- Exchange --- Expenditure --- Expenditures --- Export market --- Exports --- Externalities --- Factors of production --- Foreign exchange --- Fossil --- Fossil fuel --- Fuel --- Fuels --- Functional forms --- General equilibrium analysis --- Goods --- Heat --- Household analysis --- Income --- Income group --- Income groups --- Income levels --- Incomes --- Inputs --- Intermediate goods --- International markets --- Inventory --- Macroeconomics and economic growth --- Marginal cost --- Market --- Markets --- Markets & market access --- Multipliers --- Natural resources --- Oil --- Oil products --- Optimization --- Output --- Outputs --- Payments --- Perfect competition --- Price --- Price change --- Price changes --- Price index --- Price levels --- Prices --- Pricing --- Pricing policy --- Pricing scheme --- Private sector development --- Product --- Production --- Production costs --- Production function --- Production functions --- Production increases --- Production of coke --- Production structure --- Products --- Rate of return --- Real estate --- Rent --- Residential energy --- Revenue --- Savings --- Share --- Shares --- Subsidies --- Subsidization --- Subsidy --- Substitute --- Substitutes --- Substitution --- Supply --- Supply costs --- Tariff --- Tax --- Tax rate --- Tax rates --- Taxes --- Theory --- Total output --- Trade --- Transition economies --- Transport --- Transport economics policy and planning --- Trends --- Utility --- Utility functions --- Value --- Value added --- Variables --- Wealth --- Welfare

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Subsidies and cross-subsidies in the energy sector are common throughout Eastern Europe and Central Asia. In Belarus, revenues from an industrial tariff on electricity are used to cross-subsidize heating for households. Input-output (IO) data and a household consumption survey are used to analyze the distributional impacts of this cross-subsidization. This paper illustrates cost shares and electricity-intensity of different sectors and consumption categories and uses the IO data to obtain first-order estimates of the distributional incidence of policy reform. The paper then analyzes distributional impacts of subsidy reform with a Computable General Equilibrium model. Although poorer households benefit from reduced heating costs, the increase in prices of other consumer goods due to higher electricity prices more than offsets the benefits they receive from the subsidies. The analysis finds that the current cross-subsidies are regressive, and policy reform would be highly progressive.

Agriculture --- Approach --- Banking --- Benchmark --- Benchmark data --- Capital --- Capital returns --- Commodities --- Commodity --- Communication --- Competition --- Consumer demand --- Consumer good --- Consumer goods --- Consumer groups --- Consumer prices --- Consumers --- Consumption --- Cost increase --- Cost of electricity --- Cost of funds --- Costs --- Customer --- Customers --- Demand --- Developing economy --- Development policy --- Distribution --- District heating --- Domestic market --- Domestic price --- Economic cooperation --- Economic development --- Economic statistics --- Economic systems --- Economic theory & research --- Economics literature --- Elasticity --- Elasticity of substitution --- Electricity --- Electricity prices --- Emerging markets --- Energy --- Energy price --- Energy prices --- Energy production and transportation --- Equilibrium --- Equilibrium analysis --- Equilibrium price --- Equilibrium prices --- Exchange --- Expenditure --- Expenditures --- Export market --- Exports --- Externalities --- Factors of production --- Foreign exchange --- Fossil --- Fossil fuel --- Fuel --- Fuels --- Functional forms --- General equilibrium analysis --- Goods --- Heat --- Household analysis --- Income --- Income group --- Income groups --- Income levels --- Incomes --- Inputs --- Intermediate goods --- International markets --- Inventory --- Macroeconomics and economic growth --- Marginal cost --- Market --- Markets --- Markets & market access --- Multipliers --- Natural resources --- Oil --- Oil products --- Optimization --- Output --- Outputs --- Payments --- Perfect competition --- Price --- Price change --- Price changes --- Price index --- Price levels --- Prices --- Pricing --- Pricing policy --- Pricing scheme --- Private sector development --- Product --- Production --- Production costs --- Production function --- Production functions --- Production increases --- Production of coke --- Production structure --- Products --- Rate of return --- Real estate --- Rent --- Residential energy --- Revenue --- Savings --- Share --- Shares --- Subsidies --- Subsidization --- Subsidy --- Substitute --- Substitutes --- Substitution --- Supply --- Supply costs --- Tariff --- Tax --- Tax rate --- Tax rates --- Taxes --- Theory --- Total output --- Trade --- Transition economies --- Transport --- Transport economics policy and planning --- Trends --- Utility --- Utility functions --- Value --- Value added --- Variables --- Wealth --- Welfare

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Equitable Access to High-Cost Pharmaceuticals seeks to aid the development and implementation of equitable public health policies by pharmaco-economics professionals, health economists, and policymakers. With detailed country-by country analysis of policy and regulation, the Work compares and contrasts national healthcare systems to support researchers and practitioners identify optimal healthcare policy solutions. The Work incorporates chapters on global regulatory changes, health technology assessment guidelines, and competitive effectiveness research recommendations from international bodies such as the OECD or the EU. Novel policies such as horizon scanning, managed-entry agreement and post-launch monitoring are considered in detail. The Work also thoroughly reviews novel pharmaceuticals with particular research interest, including cancer drugs, orphan medicines, Hep C, and personalized medicines. Evaluates impact and efficacy of current access policies and pricing regulation of high-cost drugs Incorporates existing guidelines and recommendations by international organizations Compares and contrasts how different countries fund and police high-cost drug access Explores novel and emergent policies, including managed entry agreement, analysis of real world data and differential pricing Reviews novel pharmaceuticals of current research interest

Drugs --- Prices. --- Prices --- Law and legislation. --- Farmaceutische producten : Farmaceutische specialiteiten --- Produits pharmaceutiques : Spécialités pharmaceutiques --- medicinal product --- pricing of medicines --- pharmaceutical legislation --- research --- pētniecība --- badania --- истраживање --- έρευνα --- riċerka --- investigación --- cercetare --- kërkim --- ricerca --- výskum --- výzkum --- tyrimai --- истражување --- raziskave --- istraživanje --- investigação --- taighde --- kutatás --- uurimine --- tutkimus --- forskning --- изследване --- Forschung --- recherche --- pesquisa --- ricerca sperimentale --- reachtaíocht chógaisíochta --- farmacevtska zakonodaja --- farmaceutická legislatíva --- legislación farmacéutica --- farmaceutická legislativa --- legislação farmacêutica --- фармацевтично законодателство --- lääkelainsäädäntö --- tiesību akti farmācijas jomā --- farmaceutische wetgeving --- législation pharmaceutique --- lovgivning om apotekervæsen --- prawo farmaceutyczne --- legislație farmaceutică --- legjislacion farmaceutik --- propisi o lijekovima --- läkemedelslagstiftning --- leġiżlazzjoni farmaċewtika --- farmacinę veiklą reguliuojantys teisės aktai --- фармацеутско законодавство --- ravimiseadusandlus --- νομοθεσία φαρμάκων --- legislazione farmaceutica --- Arzneimittelrecht --- gyógyszerjog --- фармацевтско законодавство --- zákon o léčivech --- Arzneimittelgesetz --- contrôle des médicaments --- controlul medicamentelor --- έλεγχος φαρμάκων --- gyógyszerészeti jogszabályok --- φαρμακευτικές διατάξεις --- reglamentación farmacéutica --- läkemedelsbestämmelser --- noteikumi farmācijas jomā --- Arzneimittelkontrolle --- control of medicines --- ravimieeskirjad --- farmacinės veiklos taisyklės --- ljekarničko zakonodavstvo --- normativa farmaceutica --- zāļu kontrole --- ravimite kontroll --- regulamentação farmacêutica --- kontrola liekov --- farmaceutické predpisy --- kontroll i medikamenteve --- akte normative për farmaceutikën --- farmacinės veiklos įstatymai --- regolamentazione farmaceutica --- pharmaceutical regulations --- lääkeasetukset --- controle van geneesmiddelen --- voorschriften inzake geneesmiddelen --- lääkkeiden valvonta --- controllo dei farmaci --- reglementări farmaceutice --- vaistų kontrolė --- réglementation pharmaceutique --- farmacopea nazionale --- farmaceutski propisi --- farmaceutické předpisy --- određivanje cijena lijekova --- oceňovanie liekov --- stanovování cen léčivých přípravků --- fixação de preços de medicamentos --- prisfastsættelse af lægemidler --- ipprezzar tal-mediċini --- Preisfestsetzung für Medikamente --- lääkkeiden hinnoittelu- ja korvausjärjestelmä --- farmaatsiatoodete hinnakujundus --- fijación de precios de medicamentos --- läkemedelsprissättning --- fissazione dei prezzi dei medicinali --- cógais a phraghsáil --- fixation des prix des médicaments --- stabilirea prețurilor medicamentelor --- oblikovanje cen zdravil --- τιμολόγηση φαρμάκων --- vaistų kainų nustatymas --- ustalanie cen produktów leczniczych --- prijsstelling van geneesmiddelen --- zāļu cenu noteikšana --- ценообразуване при лекарствата --- gyógyszerár-támogatás --- pharmaceutical pricing and reimbursement --- vaistų kainodara ir kompensavimas  --- stabilirea prețurilor și rambursarea medicamentelor --- pricing and reimbursement of medicinal products --- prisfastsættelse og godtgørelse af lægemidler  --- fissazione dei prezzi dei farmaci e rimborsi   --- política FPR --- läkemedelssubventioner --- politicile de stabilire a prețurilor la produsele farmaceutice --- Preisfestsetzung und Kostenerstattung für Arzneimittel  --- árképzés és visszatérítés --- cenovna politika v farmaciji --- politica de rambursare și de stabilire a prețurilor pentru produsele farmaceutice --- τιμολόγηση φαρμάκων και επιστροφή των δαπανών για φάρμακα --- zāļu cenu politika --- pharmaceutical reimbursement and pricing policy --- P&R policy --- zāļu kompensēšanas un cenu noteikšanas politika --- farmaseuttisten tuotteiden hinnoittelu ja korvattavuus --- medikamentu cenu politika --- fixação de preços e reembolso de produtos farmacêuticos  --- prisfastsættelsespolitik for lægemidler --- medikamentu kompensēšana un cenu noteikšana --- politique de fixation des prix des produits pharmaceutiques --- fijación de precios y reembolso de medicamentos --- politika stanovování cen a úhrad léčivých přípravků --- farmaseuttisten tuotteiden hinnoittelupolitiikka --- läkemedelspriser --- Preisfestsetzung und Kostenerstattung für Medikamente --- stanovování cen a úhrady léčivých přípravků  --- oblikovanje cen zdravil in povračil zanje --- cenová politika v oblasti liekov --- gyógyszerártámogatás --- πολιτική για την τιμολόγηση των φαρμακευτικών προϊόντων --- politika tal-ipprezzar u tar-rimborż tal-prodotti farmaċewtiċi --- zāļu cenu noteikšanas politika --- politika oceňovania a úhrady liekov --- politica di fissazione dei prezzi e di rimborso dei farmaci --- oceňovanie a úhrada liekov --- ценообразуване и възстановяване на разходите за фармацевтични продукти --- πολιτική τιμολόγησης και επιστροφής δαπανών για φαρμακευτικά προϊόντα --- određivanje cijena i povrat troškova za medicinske proizvode --- πολιτική για την τιμολόγηση των φαρμάκων --- politique de fixation des prix et de remboursement des médicaments --- gyógyszerárképzés --- ustalanie cen i refundacja produktów leczniczych --- политика на ценообразуване при фармацевтичните продукти --- vaistų kainodaros politika --- određivanje cijena farmaceutskih proizvoda --- politika stanovování cen a úhrad léčiv --- politika tal-ipprezzar tal-prodotti farmaċewtiċi --- politika povrata troškova i određivanja cijena u farmaciji --- política de fixação de preços e de reembolso de produtos farmacêuticos --- prisfastsættelse og godtgørelse af lægemidler --- politica di fissazione dei prezzi e di rimborso dei medicinali --- ceny leków i ich refundacja  --- politik vedrørende godtgørelse og prisfastsættelse af lægemidler --- Preisgestaltungspolitik für Arzneimittel --- gyógyszerárazási politika --- lääkkeiden hinnoittelupolitiikka --- prijs- en vergoedingenbeleid voor geneesmiddelen --- pharmaceutical pricing policy --- medikamentu cenu noteikšana --- zāļu cenu noteikšana un kompensēšana --- política de fijación de precios de los productos farmacéuticos --- ipprezzar u rimborż tal-prodotti farmaċewtiċi  --- politika oceňovania liekov --- cobertura farmacéutica y política de precios --- gyógyszeripari marketing --- prijsbeleid inzake geneesmiddelen --- politika određivanja cijena farmaceutskih proizvoda --- polityka dotycząca ustalania cen leków i refundacji --- fixation des prix et remboursement des produits pharmaceutiques  --- oceňovanie a úhrada liekov  --- hinnoittelu- ja korvauspolitiikka --- oblikovanje cen in povračila za zdravila  --- politica di fissazione dei prezzi dei farmaci --- medikamentu kompensēšanas un cenu noteikšanas politika --- Preisgestaltungs- und Kostenerstattungspolitik für Arzneimittel --- τιμολόγηση φαρμακευτικών προϊόντων και επιστροφή δαπανών --- cenová politika léčiv --- medikamentu cenu noteikšanas politika --- ipprezzar u rimborż tal-prodotti mediċinali --- određivanje cijena farmaceutskih proizvoda i povrat troškova --- politika određivanja cijena u farmaciji i povrata troškova --- fixação de preços e de reembolso de medicamentos --- stabilirea prețurilor și rambursarea produselor farmaceutice  --- política de fixação de preços de produtos farmacêuticos --- polityka dotycząca ustalania cen leków --- prijsstelling en vergoeding van geneesmiddelen  --- copago farmacéutico y fijación de precios --- prodott mediċinali --- ravim --- φάρμακο --- íoc leighis --- lääke --- medicamento --- médicament --- лек --- medicament --- léčivý přípravek --- produkt leczniczy --- medicinski proizvod --- liek --- medicinale --- geneesmiddel --- Arzneimittel --- zdravilo --- medikament --- vaistinis preparatas --- лекарствен продукт --- gyógyászati készítmény --- lægemiddel --- zāles --- kapky --- orvosság --- lijek --- medicamento per la medicina animale --- medicamento per la medicina umana --- zásyp --- medication --- mast --- medicamente --- medicin --- tabletka --- vaistas --- lek --- medikaments --- medikamentas --- lék --- Arznei --- tinktura --- prodotti mediċinali --- mjekim --- lääkintä --- медикамент --- mediċinament --- prášky --- prášek --- remédio --- liečivý prípravok --- φάρμακα --- лекарство --- gyógyszer --- läkemedel --- lääkitys --- îngrijire medicală --- lääkevalmiste --- prodotto medicinale --- dražé --- medicijn --- Arzneispezialität --- tableta --- čípek --- Medikament --- Läkemedelsprodukter