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This paper argues that legislative malapportionment, denoting a discrepancy between the share of legislative seats and the share of population held by electoral districts, serves as a tool for pre-democratic elites to preserve their political power and economic interests after a transition to democracy. The authors claim that legislative malapportionment enhances the pre-democratic elite's political influence by over-representing areas that are more likely to vote for parties aligned with the elite. This biased political representation survives in equilibrium as long as it helps democratic consolidation. Using data from Latin America, the authors document empirically that malapportionment increases the probability of transitioning to a democracy. Moreover, the data show that over-represented electoral districts are more likely to vote for parties close to pre-democracy ruling groups. The analysis also finds that overrepresented areas have lower levels of political competition and receive more transfers per capita from the central government, both of which favor the persistence of power of pre-democracy elites.

Democracies --- Democratic regimes --- Economic power --- Elections --- Electoral systems --- Emerging Markets --- Governance --- Labor Policies --- Legislation --- Macroeconomics and Economic Growth --- Parliamentary Government --- Political Economy --- Political groups --- Political influence --- Political representation --- Political Systems and Analysis --- Private Sector Development --- Social Protections and Labor --- Voting

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One of the first books to extend the currently burgeoning scholarship on East Germany to the visual arts, revealing that painting, like literature and film, was a space of contestation.

Modernism (Art) --- Art and society --- Heisig, Bernhard, --- Criticism and interpretation. --- Painters --- Attitudes --- Art --- Art and sociology --- Society and art --- Sociology and art --- Art, Modernist --- Modern art --- Modernism in art --- Modernist art --- Aesthetic movement (Art) --- Art, Modern --- Social aspects --- Bernhard Heisig. --- East Germany. --- German History. --- German and Australian Social Memory. --- Modern Art. --- Painting. --- Political Influence. --- Socialist Modernism. --- Visual Arts.

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An exploration of how ©†thelwold and those he influenced deployed the promotion of saints to implement religious reform.

Saints --- Monasticism and religious orders --- Monachisme et ordres religieux --- Friendship. --- Cult --- History --- Histoire --- Middle Ages. --- Cult. --- Aethelwold, --- Friends and associates. --- To 1500. --- England. --- Ethelwoldus ep. Wintoniensis --- Angleterre --- Culte des saints --- To 1500 --- Anglo-Saxon history. --- Bishop Æthelwold. --- early medieval England. --- historical context. --- political influence. --- religious belief. --- religious power. --- religious reform. --- saints' cults.

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Why working-class Americans almost never become politicians, what that means for democracy, and what reformers can do about itWhy are Americans governed by the rich? Millionaires make up only three percent of the public but control all three branches of the federal government. How did this happen? What stops lower-income and working-class Americans from becoming politicians? The first book to answer these urgent questions, The Cash Ceiling provides a compelling and comprehensive account of why so few working-class people hold office-and what reformers can do about it.Using extensive data on candidates, politicians, party leaders, and voters, Nicholas Carnes debunks popular misconceptions (like the idea that workers are unelectable or unqualified to govern), identifies the factors that keep lower-class Americans off the ballot and out of political institutions, and evaluates a variety of reform proposals.In the United States, Carnes shows, elections have a built-in "cash ceiling," a series of structural barriers that make it almost impossible for the working-class to run for public office. Elections take a serious toll on candidates, many working-class Americans simply can't shoulder the practical burdens, and civic and political leaders often pass them over in favor of white-collar candidates. But these obstacles aren't inevitable. Pilot programs to recruit, train, and support working-class candidates have the potential to increase the economic diversity of our governing institutions and ultimately amplify the voices of ordinary citizens.Who runs for office goes to the heart of whether we will have a democracy that is representative or not. The Cash Ceiling shows that the best hope for combating the oversized political influence of the rich might simply be to help more working-class Americans become politicians.

Campaign funds --- Elections --- American politics. --- American workers. --- Americans. --- U.S. elections. --- U.S. politics. --- US elections. --- candidate recruitment. --- cash ceiling. --- economic diversity. --- elections. --- governing institutions. --- lower-income Americans. --- political campaigns. --- political candidate. --- political equality reform. --- political influence. --- political office. --- political representation. --- politicians. --- politics. --- public office. --- underrepresentation. --- upper class. --- working-class Americans. --- working-class candidates.

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A methodologically innovative account of the role of women writers in the development of early psychological theory and practice in the long eighteenth century.

Philosophy of mind --- English literature --- British literature --- Inklings (Group of writers) --- Nonsense Club (Group of writers) --- Order of the Fancy (Group of writers) --- Mind, Philosophy of --- Mind, Theory of --- Theory of mind --- Philosophy --- Cognitive science --- Metaphysics --- Philosophical anthropology --- History --- Women authors&delete& --- History and criticism --- Women authors --- History and criticism. --- Colonial Legacies. --- Educational Practice. --- Enlightenment. --- Feminist Thought. --- Intellectual History. --- Political Influence. --- Science of Mind. --- Social Reform. --- Women Writers.