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This study is a project to assess the exposure to mycotoxins and the impact of these mycotoxicoses on the growth of preschool children in Benin. Our results show that all children tested except one, have ochratoxin A (OTA) in the blood at a concentration exceeding 25 ng/l. This correlates with contamination of food by OTA and other mycotoxins searched at concentrations that exceed the regulatory limits of the European Union. The OTA from food was transferred in the blood of children who are heavily exposed being exclusively fed with these contaminated foods (corn flour, soybean, peanut). The presence of OTA has been proved in cereals in Benin since 1993 (Bouraïma and Al., 1993). The current works confirm its presence. We also wanted to see if there was a difference between non-malnourished children and malnourisched children. The group classified as malnourished children had less OTA in blood than those classified as non-malnourished? This group also had a lower protidemia that promoted urinary elimination of the toxin. Indeed OTA binds strongly to plasma proteins and can remain in the blood more than 30 days after a single exposure. It remains to assess more accurately the potential pathological serum levels of OTA found, as well as food contamination by trichothecenes, zearalenone, fumonisin and alfatoxin. Research on mold present in flours collected during our study show that Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium are present. So there may be in food all the toxins which may be produced by these molds. There may also be multiple different mycotoxins contamination resulting in additive and/or synergistic effects. It seems important and necessary to follow these children for quite some time to assess the impact of contamination by orchratoxine A in particular and other mycotoxins on their health and growth. It would be desirable serum concentrations of OTA using substances known to inhibits its distribution and its accumulation. Similarly, it would be desirable to limit the effects of OTA pro oxidants and mycotoxins by providing children with antioxidants like vitamins C and E and polyphenols La présente étude constitue un projet ayant pour but l’évaluation de l’exposition aux mycotoxines et l’impact de ces mycotoxicoses sur la croissance des enfants en âge préscolaire au Bénin. Nos résultats montrent que tous les enfants testés sauf un, ont de l’ochratoxine A (OTA) dans le sang à une concentration supérieure à 25 ng/l. cela est en corrélation avec la contamination de tous les aliments par l’OTA et par les autres mycotoxines recherchées à des concentrations qui dépassent les limites réglementaires de l’Union Européenne. L’OTA présente dans l’alimentation est passée dans le sang des enfants qui y sont fortement exposés étant presque exclusivement nourris avec ces aliments contaminés (farine de maïs, de soja, d’arachide). La présence de l’OTA a été révélée dans les céréales au Bénin depuis 1993 (Bouraïma et al, 1993). Les travaux en cours confirment cette présence. Nos avons également voulu voir s’il y avait une différence entre enfants non-malnutris et malnutris. Le groupe des enfants classés comme malnutris a sensiblement moins d’OTA dans le sang que ceux classés non-malnutris. Ce groupe a aussi une protidémie globale plus faible qui favorise l’élimination urinaire de la toxine. En effet, l’OTA se lie fortement aux protéines plasmatiques et peut rester dans le sang plus de 30 jours après une exposition unique. Il reste cependant à évaluer avec plus de précision la potentialité pathologique des concentrations sériques d’OTA trouvées, de même que la contamination des aliments par les trichothécènes, la zéaralénone, les fumonisines et les aflatoxines. Les recherches sur les moisissures présentes dans les farines prélevées lors de notre étude montrent qu’il y a la présence d’Aspergillus, de Penecillium et de Fusarium. Il pourrait donc y avoir dans les aliments toutes les toxines susceptibles d’être produites par ces moisissures. Il pourrait également y avoir une multi-contamination par différentes mycotoxines entraînant des effets additifs et/ou synergiques. Il nous semble important et nécessaire de suivre ces enfants pendant encore quelques temps afin d’évaluer l’impact de la contamination par l’ochratoxine A en particulier et par les autres mycotoxines en général, sur leur santé et leur croissance. Il serait souhaitable de faire baisser les concentrations sériques d’OTA en utilisant des substances connues pour inhiber sa distribution et son accumulation. De même, il serait souhaitable de limiter les effets pro oxydant de l’OTA et des mycotoxines en donnant aux enfants des antioxydants comme les vitamines C et E et des polyphénols

ochratoxin A --- Child --- Mycotoxins --- Malnutrition --- Aspergillus --- Penicillium --- Fusarium

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International trade is highly affected by mycotoxin contaminations, which result in an annual 5% to 10% loss of global crop production. In the last decade, the mycotoxin scenario has been complicated by the progressive understanding—alongside emerging mycotoxins—of the parallel presence of modified (masked and conjugated) forms, in addition to the previously free known ones. The present Toxins Special Issue presents original research papers and reviews that deal with the fates of all these forms of mycotoxins with respect to aspects that cover traditional and industrial food processing, yearly grain campaign peculiar conditions and management, novel analytical solutions, consumer exposure, and biomarker-assessment directions. It gives a taste of an exciting scientific field that has several implications for our daily life because (i) it covers our diet practically and from every point of view, (ii) it intersects with our culinary uses and customs, but also industrial production processes, and (iii) it involves a careful evaluation of costs and benefits and a constant and continuous improvement of mycotoxin mitigation strategies.

Research & information: general --- mycotoxin --- milling --- bran --- semolina --- cooking --- dietary exposure --- aflatoxins --- alkaline --- hydrolyzed fumonisins --- fumonisins --- food processing --- maize --- masa --- matrix-associated mycotoxins --- modified mycotoxins --- tortillas --- mycotoxins --- trichothecenes --- thermal degradation --- decontamination --- mass spectrometry --- detoxification --- design of experiment --- LC-MS/MS --- Ochratoxin A --- 2′R-ochratoxin A --- 14(R)-ochratoxin A --- coffee --- degradation --- processing --- roasting --- masked mycotoxins --- emerging mycotoxins --- Fusarium --- Serbia --- fluorescence polarization immunoassay --- T-2 toxin --- HT-2 toxin --- T-2 glucoside --- HT-2 glucoside --- wheat --- validation study --- screening method --- deoxynivalenol --- children --- adolescents --- pregnant women --- vegetarians --- biomonitoring --- acrylamide --- multiple mitigation strategies --- design of experiments --- bakery food processing --- biscuits --- Fusarium toxins --- beer --- malt --- risk assessment --- deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside --- conversion --- Chinese steamed bread --- n/a --- 2'R-ochratoxin A

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Mycotoxins are a Public Health concern that in last year have reached the top 10 food and product hazard categories in the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF), with almost six hundred notifications. The toxicological effects of mycotoxins are evaluated through the extrapolation of results from in vivo and in vitro assays. Studies of mycotoxins’ effects at the cellular level precede those in organs and systems. All these studies are key steps for risk assessment and following legislation for mycotoxins. This Special Issue of Toxins comprises 10 original contributions and two reviews. The Issue reports new findings regarding toxic mechanisms, the use of innovative techniques to study the potential toxicity of mycotoxins not only individually but in combination, reflecting a real scenario according to current studies of mycotoxins.

Medicine --- Destruxin A --- Bombyx mori --- binding protein --- BmTudor-sn --- Bm12 cell --- Ochratoxin A (OTA) --- human Stem Cells --- mycotoxins --- cells --- cytotoxicity --- cell culture --- T-2 toxin --- HT-2 toxin --- apoptosis --- autophagy --- endophyte --- fungi --- neurotoxin --- lolitrems --- ochratoxin A --- beauvericin --- mixtures --- HepG2 cells --- genotoxicity --- cell cycle --- Fusarium --- Aspergillus --- Penicillium --- Alternaria --- emerging mycotoxin --- in vitro --- IPEC-J2 --- occurrence data --- trichothecene --- biosynthetic pathway --- acetyltransferase --- deacetylase --- deoxynivalenol --- 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol --- isotrichodermol --- isotrichodermin --- differentiated Caco-2 cells --- cell apoptosis --- transcriptome analysis --- hepatocyte --- chicken --- acute toxicity --- combined toxicity --- cell protection --- silibinin --- in silico prediction --- co-culture models --- mycotoxin interaction --- Loewe additivity --- combination index --- isobologram --- Chou-Talalay method --- MixLow --- IPEC-J2 cells --- RNA-seq --- inflammation --- MAPKs --- n/a --- Medicine.

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Mycotoxins are a Public Health concern that in last year have reached the top 10 food and product hazard categories in the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF), with almost six hundred notifications. The toxicological effects of mycotoxins are evaluated through the extrapolation of results from in vivo and in vitro assays. Studies of mycotoxins’ effects at the cellular level precede those in organs and systems. All these studies are key steps for risk assessment and following legislation for mycotoxins. This Special Issue of Toxins comprises 10 original contributions and two reviews. The Issue reports new findings regarding toxic mechanisms, the use of innovative techniques to study the potential toxicity of mycotoxins not only individually but in combination, reflecting a real scenario according to current studies of mycotoxins.

Medicine. --- Destruxin A --- Bombyx mori --- binding protein --- BmTudor-sn --- Bm12 cell --- Ochratoxin A (OTA) --- human Stem Cells --- mycotoxins --- cells --- cytotoxicity --- cell culture --- T-2 toxin --- HT-2 toxin --- apoptosis --- autophagy --- endophyte --- fungi --- neurotoxin --- lolitrems --- ochratoxin A --- beauvericin --- mixtures --- HepG2 cells --- genotoxicity --- cell cycle --- Fusarium --- Aspergillus --- Penicillium --- Alternaria --- emerging mycotoxin --- in vitro --- IPEC-J2 --- occurrence data --- trichothecene --- biosynthetic pathway --- acetyltransferase --- deacetylase --- deoxynivalenol --- 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol --- isotrichodermol --- isotrichodermin --- differentiated Caco-2 cells --- cell apoptosis --- transcriptome analysis --- hepatocyte --- chicken --- acute toxicity --- combined toxicity --- cell protection --- silibinin --- in silico prediction --- co-culture models --- mycotoxin interaction --- Loewe additivity --- combination index --- isobologram --- Chou-Talalay method --- MixLow --- IPEC-J2 cells --- RNA-seq --- inflammation --- MAPKs --- Destruxin A --- Bombyx mori --- binding protein --- BmTudor-sn --- Bm12 cell --- Ochratoxin A (OTA) --- human Stem Cells --- mycotoxins --- cells --- cytotoxicity --- cell culture --- T-2 toxin --- HT-2 toxin --- apoptosis --- autophagy --- endophyte --- fungi --- neurotoxin --- lolitrems --- ochratoxin A --- beauvericin --- mixtures --- HepG2 cells --- genotoxicity --- cell cycle --- Fusarium --- Aspergillus --- Penicillium --- Alternaria --- emerging mycotoxin --- in vitro --- IPEC-J2 --- occurrence data --- trichothecene --- biosynthetic pathway --- acetyltransferase --- deacetylase --- deoxynivalenol --- 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol --- isotrichodermol --- isotrichodermin --- differentiated Caco-2 cells --- cell apoptosis --- transcriptome analysis --- hepatocyte --- chicken --- acute toxicity --- combined toxicity --- cell protection --- silibinin --- in silico prediction --- co-culture models --- mycotoxin interaction --- Loewe additivity --- combination index --- isobologram --- Chou-Talalay method --- MixLow --- IPEC-J2 cells --- RNA-seq --- inflammation --- MAPKs

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This Book of Toxins comprises 11 original contributions and one review. New findings regarding presence of mycotoxins in aromatic and medicinal plants, mango and orange juice, juices, pulps, jams, and beer, from Morocco, Pakistan, and Portugal are reported. In these studies, innovative techniques to study their presence has been developed, including liquid chromatography coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry to analyse mycotoxins and conjugated mycotoxins. Novel strategies to detect mycotoxin presence and comparisons the characteristics of a rapid quantitative analysis of different mycotoxins (deoxynivalenol, ochratoxin A, patulin, sterigmatocystin, and zearalenone) are also presented using acetyl- and butyrylcholinesterases and photobacterial strains of luminescent cells. Additionally, toxicological effects of zearalenone metabolites and beauvericin on SH-SY5Y neuronal cells are presented. One important point in the control of mycotoxins is related to decontaminated strategies, and in this sense the efficacy of potentially probiotic fruit-derived Lactobacillus isolates in removing aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is presented. Other mycotoxin decontaminated techniques included in this book are electron beam irradiation (EBI) and degradation of zearalenone and ochratoxin A using ozone. Finally, a review that summarizes the newly discovered macrocyclic trichothecenes and their bioactivities over the last decade is included.The evaluation of the presence of mycotoxins in different matrices is achieved through different analytical tools (including quantitative or qualitative determinations). Studies of mycotoxin isolation, using chromatographyc equipment coupled to spectrometry detectors (QTrap-MS/MS, MS/MS tandem, QTOF-MS/MS), are the most useful tools to control their presence. All these studies represent key steps in the establishment of the limits of detection, limits of quantification, points of identification, accuracy, reproducibility, and repeatability of different procedures. The maximum permitted or recommended levels for mycotoxins in different matrices are within a wide range (including the levels tolerated by infants and animals). In addition, decontaminated strategies, as well as control and evaluation of exposure, are demanded by authorities and food safety systems.

Medicine --- patulin --- mango --- orange --- fruit-derived products --- food safety --- regulatory limits --- chitosan --- mycotoxins --- detoxification --- LC-MS/MS --- optimization --- Destruxins --- Bombyx mori --- BmArgRS --- BmLamin-C --- RNA helicase --- binding protein --- ozone --- electron beam irradiation --- degradation --- zearalenone --- ochratoxin A --- SH-SY5Y cells --- zearalenone derivates --- beauvericin --- MTT --- qTOF–MS/MS --- beer --- immunoaffinity clean-up --- LC-FD --- human risk assessment --- Enniatin B1 --- biomonitoring --- in vivo --- metabolomics --- high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) --- macrocyclic trichothecenes --- bioactivities --- putative biosynthetic pathway --- macrocycle formation --- entomopathogens --- mycoinsecticides --- secondary metabolites --- insect pathogenesis --- acetamiprid accumulation --- aflatoxin M1 --- Lactobacillus --- probiotics --- binding --- bioluminescent bacteria --- immobilized cells --- cholinesterase-based analysis --- analytical characteristics --- enzymatic detoxification --- co-occurrence --- Q-TOF-LC/MS --- exposure --- Morocco --- n/a --- qTOF-MS/MS