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The automotive industry has been the driving force behind the growth of the German economy in the last two decades. In the years 1999–2017, German companies, thanks to their foreign expansion, became leading producers, and their share in the world market increased from 15.1% to 18.5%. Automotive companies and their subcontractors employ 1.8 million people, and the industry is one of the most profitable industrial sectors in Germany (80% of premium cars sold in the world come from factories of German manufacturers) and generate a significant part of the demand for products and services of other important sectors of the national economy, including electromechanical, chemical and logistic. This is especially true of the huge automotive cluster in southern Germany (Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg), where orders from car companies are the only source of income for many companies.

Economy --- National Economy

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The management of international capital flows is a new phenomenon in international financial relations. The IMF's institutional approach to capital controls is a new concept in international relations. For the first time in Polish literature, they were collected in a uniform study. The aim of the monograph is to review selected approaches and research on the determinants of the application of capital controls in the global economy from the perspective of the International Monetary Fund. The financial revolution, the beginning of which dates back to the 20th century, globalization and the development of technology create, on the one hand, opportunities for the development of individual countries, and on the other hand, they carry threats unprecedented in the economic history of the world. Sudden stops, financial crises in the 1990s and in the two decades of the 21st century caused by capital flows gave rise to their institutional location. For the first time in 2012, the International Monetary Fund, following the outbreak of the global financial crisis, adopted the Institutional View, which states that it is possible for the authorities of given countries to apply measures to control the international movement of capital.The COVID-19 pandemic and the war in Ukraine led to a renewed revision of the views of the International Monetary Fund on the management of international capital flows. The revision of the Institutional View made in 2022 at the IMF states that the problem of capital control is current, important and urgent to be solved in the context of maintaining the financial stability of the global economy.

Economy --- National Economy --- Supranational / Global Economy

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economics --- business management --- national economy --- management --- marketing --- finance

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finance --- regional economy --- world economy --- national economy --- mathematical modeling --- management --- Finance --- Economics

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The crisis in Russia's financial market, which started in mid-December 2014, has exposed the real scale of the economic problems that have been growing in Russia for several years. Over the course of the last year, Russia's basic macroeconomic indicators deteriorated considerably, the confidence of its citizens in the state and in institutions in charge of economic stability declined, the government and business elites became increasingly dissatisfied with the policy direction adopted by the Kremlin, and fighting started over the shrinking resources.According to forecasts obtained from both governmental and expert communities, Russia will fall into recession in 2015. The present situation is the result of the simultaneous occurrence of three unfavourable trends: the fact that the Russian economy's resource-based development model has reached the limits of its potential due to structural weaknesses, the dramatic decline in oil prices in the second half of 2014, and the impact of Western economic sanctions.Given the inefficiency of existing systemic mechanisms, in the coming years the Russian leadership will likely resort to ad hoc solutions such as switching to a more interventionist "manual override" mode in governing the state. In the short term, this will allow them to neutralise the most urgent problems, although an effective development policy will be impossible without a fundamental change of the political and economic system in Russia.

National Economy --- Supranational / Global Economy --- Economic policy --- International relations/trade --- Russia --- Economic conditions.