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This paper discusses and assesses critiques of the aurhor's reformulation of the median voter hypothesis and its testing. The author rephrases and redefines more correctly the redistribution hypothesis and clarifies its relationship with the median voter hypothesis. He also reviews four types of critiques leveled at his approach.

Disposable income --- Economic Theory and Research --- Emerging Markets --- Empirical results --- Empirical support --- Gross income --- Household income --- Household surveys --- Income --- Income distribution --- Income Study --- Incomes --- Inequality --- Macroeconomics and Economic Growth --- Market income --- Markets and Market Access --- Median voter --- Median voter hypothesis --- Middle class --- Policy Research --- Political Economy --- Poor people --- Poverty Impact Evaluation --- Poverty Reduction --- Private Sector Development --- Public Policy --- Redistributive policies

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This book considers the interrelation among macroeconomic politics, macroeconomic policymakers, macroeconomic policies, and macroeconomic performance. This interaction is examined using the expectational Phillips curve model, which measures macroeconomic outcomes in terms of inflation and unemployment. In this book, the subject of macroeconomic politics mainly focuses on voter behavior, presidential re-election ambition, and political party priorities. These factors influence the macroeconomic policy actions of the president, Congress, and the central bank. This analysis takes into account both fiscal and monetary policies. Our examination of citizen sentiment is based on rational voter theory and the median voter model. We compare the effects of macroeconomic farsightedness versus shortsightedness among voters. We also contrast the conservative versus liberal perspectives on macroeconomic policy and performance. The empirical component of our analysis examines the electoral and partisan political business cycle effects upon the U.S. economy, and we find evidence of idiosyncratic effects during the time frame of 1961 through 2014. Finally, we discuss macroeconomic influence on various measures of voter sentiment, such as presidential job approval as well as presidential and congressional election outcomes.

Macroeconomics. --- Phillips curve. --- United States --- Economic policy --- classical macroeconomic perspective --- congressional vote --- electoral cycle --- expectations-augmented Phillips curve --- fiscal policy --- inflation --- Keynesianism --- median voter model --- monetary policy --- partisan cycle --- political business cycle --- presidential approval --- presidential vote --- unemployment

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Inequality in world income is very high, according to household surveys, more because of differences between mean country incomes than because of inequality within countries. World inequality increased between 1988 and 1993, driven by slower growth in rural per capita incomes in populous Asian countries (Bangladesh, China, and India) than in large, rich OECD countries, and by increasing income differences between urban China on the one hand and rural China and rural India on the other; Milanovic derives the distribution of individuals' income or expenditures for two years, 1988 and 1993. His is the first paper to calculate world distribution for individuals based entirely on data from household surveys. The data, from 91 countries, are adjusted for differences in purchasing power parity between the countries. Measured by the Gini index, inequality increased from an already high 63 in 1988 to 66 in 1993. This increase was driven more by rising differences in mean incomes between countries than by rising inequalities within countries. Contributing most to the inequality were rising urban-rural differences in China and the slower growth of rural purchasing-power-adjusted incomes in South Asia than in several large developed market economies. This paper - a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to study inequality and poverty in the world. Also published in The Economic Journal, January 2002 pp. 51-92. The author may be contacted at bmilanovic@worldbank.org.

Consumption --- Economic Theory --- Economic Theory and Research --- Emerging Markets --- Finance and Financial Sector Development --- Financial Literacy --- Growth Models --- Health Systems Development and Reform --- Health, Nutrition and Population --- Household Income --- Household Surveys --- Income --- Income Differences --- Income Distribution --- Income Distribution Data --- Income Inequality --- Increasing Inequality --- Inequality --- Macroeconomics --- Macroeconomics and Economic Growth --- Mean Incomes --- Median Voter --- Median Voter Hypothesis --- Personal Income --- Political Economy --- Poverty Diagnostics --- Poverty Impact Evaluation --- Poverty Reduction --- Power Parity --- Private Sector Development --- Rising Inequality --- Rural Development --- Rural Poverty Reduction --- Services and Transfers to Poor --- Social Protections and Labor

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"Domestic politics matters" has become a rallying cry for international relations scholars over the past decade, yet the question still remains: Just how does it matter? In this book, George Downs and David Rocke argue that an important part of the international impact of domestic politics springs from the institutional responses to its many uncertainties. This impact is due not so much to the errors in judgment these uncertainties can cause as to the strategic and institutional consequences of knowing that such errors are possible. The heart of the book is its formal analysis of how three kinds of domestic uncertainty have shaped international relations through their influence on three very different institutions. One chapter deals with the decision rules that citizens create to cope with uncertainty about the quality of their representation, and how these can lead to the paradoxical "gambling for resurrection" effect. Another chapter describes the extent to which the weak enforcement provisions of GATT can be understood as a mechanism to cope with uncertain but intermittent interest group demands for protection. The third chapter looks at the impact of uncertainty on the creation, survival, and membership of multilateral regulatory institutions, such as the Montreal Protocol and EU, when some states question the capacity of other states to meet their treaty obligations.

GATT. --- Theory. --- EU. --- Domestic politics. --- International politics. --- Abreu, Dilip. --- Adventurism. --- Asymmetric information. --- Balance of Power. --- Bargaining costs. --- Bayesian learning. --- Bilateral agreement. --- Brinkmanship. --- Capability. --- Capacity change. --- Certainty effect. --- Chief executive. --- Compensation. --- Compliance. --- Contraction. --- Coordination regime. --- Cournot equilibrium. --- Democracy. --- Deterrence. --- Diversionary war. --- Domino effect. --- Election sanction. --- Enforcement. --- Environmental regulation. --- Equilibrium refinements. --- Fearon, Jame. --- Fundamental attribution bias. --- Gambling for resurrection. --- Gibbons, Robert. --- Glorious Revolution. --- Haas, Peter. --- Hegemonic stability game. --- Humes, Brian. --- Imperfect information. --- Information uncertainty. --- Institutionalist tradition. --- Interest groups. --- Jervis, Robert. --- Kahneman, Daniel. --- Kreps, David. --- Lafay, Jean-Dominique. --- Loss aversion. --- Median voter. --- Multilateral agreement. --- Multilateral institution. --- Multipolarity. --- New economics of organization. --- Nontariff barriers. --- Osborne, Martin. --- Pareto-suboptimal solutions. --- Perfect information. --- Preventive wars. --- Protectionism.

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Many continue to believe that the United States is a nation of political moderates. In fact, it is a nation divided. It has been so for some time and has grown more so. This book provides a new and historically grounded perspective on the polarization of America, systematically documenting how and why it happened.Polarized presents commonsense benchmarks to measure polarization, draws data from a wide range of historical sources, and carefully assesses the quality of the evidence. Through an innovative and insightful use of circumstantial evidence, it provides a much-needed reality check to claims about polarization. This rigorous yet engaging and accessible book examines how polarization displaced pluralism and how this affected American democracy and civil society.Polarized challenges the widely held belief that polarization is the product of party and media elites, revealing instead how the American public in the 1960s set in motion the increase of polarization. American politics became highly polarized from the bottom up, not the top down, and this began much earlier than often thought. The Democrats and the Republicans are now ideologically distant from each other and about equally distant from the political center. Polarized also explains why the parties are polarized at all, despite their battle for the decisive median voter. No subject is more central to understanding American politics than political polarization, and no other book offers a more in-depth and comprehensive analysis of the subject than this one.

Divided government --- Party affiliation --- Polarization (Social sciences) --- Political culture --- Political participation --- Political parties --- Right and left (Political science) --- Activism. --- Advocacy. --- Americans. --- Barack Obama. --- Bipartisanship. --- Bowdoin College. --- CQ Press. --- Calculation. --- Centre-left politics. --- Centre-right politics. --- Centrism. --- Circumstantial evidence. --- Communism. --- Conservative Democrat. --- Conservative Party (UK). --- Counterculture. --- Culture war. --- Dealignment. --- Determination. --- Donald Trump. --- Dummy variable (statistics). --- Election. --- Electoral College (United States). --- Exit poll. --- Extremism. --- Far-right politics. --- General election. --- George W. Bush. --- Government. --- Graduate school. --- Hillary Clinton. --- Hippie. --- Ideology. --- Incumbent. --- John McCain. --- Larry Sabato. --- Left-wing politics. --- Legislation. --- Liberal conservatism. --- Liberalism. --- Louisiana State University. --- Macropartisanship. --- Major party. --- Majority. --- Measurement. --- Median voter theorem. --- Midterm election. --- Minor party. --- Moderate. --- Multi-party system. --- National Science Foundation. --- National security. --- New Deal coalition. --- Newt Gingrich. --- Nomination contest. --- Nomination. --- Norman Ornstein. --- Observational error. --- Obstacle. --- On the Issues. --- Opposition Party. --- Party discipline. --- Party identification. --- Party leader. --- Party system. --- Percentage point. --- Percentage. --- Political campaign. --- Political party. --- Political philosophy. --- Political spectrum. --- Politician. --- Politics of the United States. --- Politics. --- Public opinion. --- Public policy. --- Realigning election. --- Rebuttal. --- Republican Party (United States). --- Respondent. --- Right-wing politics. --- Rockefeller Republican. --- Ronald Reagan. --- Social issue. --- Split-ticket voting. --- Standard deviation. --- Syracuse University. --- Tax. --- The American Voter. --- The Federalist Papers. --- The Public Interest. --- Tom Mann. --- Two-party system. --- Unemployment. --- Voter turnout. --- Voting. --- Walter Lippmann. --- What Happened. --- World War II. --- Writing.