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662.767.1 --- 620.95 --- Methane as fuel. Biogas --- Utilization of biological energy, e.g. from vegetation, animals --- 620.95 Utilization of biological energy, e.g. from vegetation, animals --- 662.767.1 Methane as fuel. Biogas --- Report --- LANDFILL GAS --- ENERGY RESOURCES --- ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT --- UTILIZATION

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The scope of the present study focuses on the assessment of opportunities to improve the effectiveness of the clean development mechanism (CDM) through the enhanced use of standardization. The study argues that the introduction of the concept of standardized baselines to the CDM can substantially change the way the CDM develops. The goal of the present study is to discuss what the options are for driving the idea of standardization further. The working hypothesis is that baseline standardization alone may not be sufficient in that regard but can be seen as a starting point for improving the CDM through the enhanced use of standardization at other levels of CDM procedures. The study examines how standardization can be used to simplify CDM procedures throughout the project cycle and to extend the scope of the CDM in a way that improves access of underrepresented sectors and regions. The paper is divided into three chapters. The first chapter sets the scene by analyzing in detail procedural imperfections of the CDM that can be addressed through extending standardization to project cycle procedures. The second chapter discusses new opportunities that standardization could provide to the CDM reform. The third chapter of the study analyzes if and how standardization can enable policy-driven actions to generate carbon credits under the CDM. The chapter also assesses the ways standardization can help overcome the remaining barriers to better incorporate the CDM in host countries low carbon development policies, and to inform the development of new market mechanisms.

Abatement --- Administrative Procedures --- Audits --- Carbon Credits --- Carbon Finance --- Carbon Policy and Trading --- Charcoal Production --- Clean Development Mechanism --- Climate --- Climate Change Mitigation and Green House Gases --- Coal --- Decision Making --- Developed Countries --- E-Business --- Economies of Scale --- Electricity --- Emission Reductions --- Emissions --- Energy --- Energy Efficiency --- Energy Production and Transportation --- Energy Supply --- Environment --- Environmental Economics & Policies --- Fuels --- Hydropower --- Landfill Gas --- Methane --- Natural Gas --- Power Generation --- Private Sector --- Private Sector Development --- Renewable Energy --- Streams --- Technical Assistance --- Technology Transfer --- Transaction Costs

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Urbanization and climate change will define much of the 21st century. Urbanization leads to improvement in standards of living, and through the increased density and service delivery efficiency of cities, higher growth can be achieved with lower greenhouse gas emissions. Cities and urban agglomerations house more than 50 percent of the global population and contribute more than 70 percent of Global greenhouse (GHG) emissions. As the share of urban population grows, sustainable urban development emerges as an essential component in addressing climate change. Mitigation often comes at a significant cost. Carbon finance has an important role to play in reducing these costs. Carbon finance is accessible through regulated mechanisms, such as the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI) under the Kyoto Protocol, and through voluntary markets, using the voluntary carbon standard and climate exchanges. City authorities, however, have not been able to fully access market mechanisms for carbon credits.

Afforestation --- Air Pollution --- Air Quality --- Automobiles --- Carbon Credits --- Carbon Dioxide --- Carbon Emissions --- Carbon Finance --- Charcoal Production --- City Development Strategies --- Climate --- Climate Change --- Climate Change Economics --- Climate Change Mitigation and Green House Gases --- Coal --- Cyclones --- Deforestation --- Electricity --- Emission Reductions --- Emissions --- Energy --- Energy and Environment --- Energy Consumption --- Energy Efficiency --- Energy Production and Transportation --- Environment --- Ethanol --- Fossil Fuels --- Global Warming --- Greenhouse Gases --- Hydrofluorocarbons --- Landfill Gas --- Landfills --- Macroeconomics and Economic Growth --- Methane --- Mobility --- Natural Gas --- Particulate Matter --- Power Plants --- Public Safety --- Public Transit --- Renewable Energy --- Roads --- Sanitation --- Street Lighting --- Temperature --- Transport --- Urban Development --- Urban Environment --- Vehicles

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This note examines how to maximize the benefits from the use of market instruments in support of developing countries' low-emission development priorities. First, it briefly surveys the current state and trends of the carbon market, highlighting the main achievements of carbon finance over its decade-long history. Second, it reviews updated scenarios of the scale of future carbon markets and associated financial flows, in light of developments in climate negotiations and domestic markets. Finally, it identifies the necessary steps to scale up carbon market flows in future, on both the demand and supply sides, including the reform of existing mechanisms, and innovation to broaden the scope, scale and reach of carbon markets. The most important determinant of carbon offset market flows to developing countries is clearly the level of international mitigation targets: the more ambitious the targets the greater the scope for such flows. Developed countries can also encourage flows by increasing supplementary limits, which are the proportion of mitigation targets that can be met by purchases from developing countries. Finally, there remains a considerable need for innovation, awareness-raising and capacity building in public and private institutions in developing countries, to increase their participation in the carbon market and build and enabling environment for low-emission development.

Afforestation --- Air Quality --- Capacity Building --- Carbon Credits --- Carbon Finance --- Carbon Intensity --- Carbon Policy and Trading --- Carbon Sequestration --- Carbon Taxes --- Clean Development Mechanism --- Clean Energy --- Climate --- Climate Change --- Climate Change Economics --- Climate Change Mitigation and Green House Gases --- Coal --- Debt Markets --- Decision Making --- Deforestation --- Developed Countries --- Developing Countries --- Emission Reductions --- Emissions --- Energy Efficiency --- Energy Security --- Environment --- Environmental Economics & Policies --- Finance and Financial Sector Development --- Financial Institutions --- Financial Sector --- Fuels --- Global Environment Facility --- Global Warming --- Greenhouse Gases --- International Finance --- Land Management --- Land-Use Change --- Landfill Gas --- Macroeconomics and Economic Growth --- Methane --- Natural Resources --- Power Generation --- Power Sector --- Price Volatility --- Renewable Energy --- Soil Carbon --- Streams --- Temperature --- Transaction Costs --- Waste Management --- Water Pollution

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This country note for Armenia is part of a series of country briefs that summarize information relevant to climate change and agriculture for three pilot countries in the Southern Caucasus Region, with a particular focus on climate and crop projections, adaptation options, policy development and institutional involvement. The note series has been developed to provide a baseline of knowledge on climate change and agriculture for the countries participating in the regional program on reducing vulnerability to climate change in Southern Caucasus Agricultural systems. This note for Armenia was shared with the government and other agricultural sector stakeholders and used as an engagement tool for a national awareness raising and consultation workshop, held in Yerevan in April 2012. Feedback and comments on the note from this consultation process have been incorporated into this updated version in collaboration with the Armenian Ministry of Agriculture.

Aerosols --- Afforestation --- Agricultural Sector --- Agricultural Subsidies --- Capacity Building --- Chemicals --- Clean Development Mechanism --- Climate --- Climate Change Economics --- Climate Change Mitigation and Green House Gases --- Crop Yields --- Decision Making --- Deforestation --- Desertification --- Drinking Water --- Economic Development --- Economics --- Energy Efficiency --- Environment --- Environmental Economics & Policies --- Environmental Education --- Evapotranspiration --- Extreme Weather Events --- Feasibility --- Floods --- Food Security --- Forests --- Glaciers --- Global Environment Facility --- Greenhouse Gases --- Human Rights --- Humidity --- Insurance --- Irrigation --- Lakes --- Landfill Gas --- Macroeconomics and Economic Growth --- Market Economy --- Meat --- Methane --- Natural Disasters --- Natural Resources --- Natural Resources Management --- Pastures --- Precipitation --- Purchasing Power --- Rainfall --- Renewable Energy --- Rural Development --- Rural Population --- Rural Poverty --- Soil Erosion --- Storms --- Temperature --- Unemployment