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Ketamine is an anesthetic synthetized for the first time in 1962, whose action mechanism depends on a non-competitive inhibition of the NMDA receptors. lts psychodysleptic effects led to the emergence of its recreational use. Although ketamine illicit use has never become comparable to that of the main recreational drugs in Europe, it expanded in Asia where ketamine has become the most abused drug.Although its use in clinical practice remains relatively safe, ketamine has shown certain toxicities among recreational users, in a chronic as well as acute way. The most obvious example of ketamine toxicity is its effect on urinary tract with the occurrence of ketamine induced cystitis, which was described for the first time in 2007.Ketamine toxicity also occurs on gastrointestinal, psychological and cognitive levels. People suffering from acute ketamine intoxication show various symptoms including cardiovascular issues, dizziness and altered levels of consciousness. The risk of death following overdose after the use of ketamine alone remains low, but users are at high risk of accident due to its analgesic and psychodysleptic effects.Recently, methoxetamine was advertised and marketed as a legal and "bladder friendly" alternative to ketamine. Actual researches give some indications that show that methoxetamine may have toxic effects similar to those of ketamine. Intoxications and death cases have already been reported. La kétamine est un agent anesthésique synthétisé pour la première fois en 1962, dont le mécanisme d'action dépend d'une inhibition non-compétitive des récepteurs NMDA. Ses propriétés psychodysleptiques particulières l'ont conduite à être détournée de son usage clinique afin d'être consommée pour des raisons récréatives. Bien que la consommation de kétamine n'ait jamais explosé en Europe par rapport aux autres drogues récréatives, la kétamine s'est largement répandue en Asie où elle est devenue la drogue la plus consommée.Bien que son utilisation dans la pratique clinique soit relativement sûre, la kétamine n'est pas dénuée de toxicité. Celle-ci se manifeste aussi bien de manière chronique qu'aigüe. 'exemple le plus évident de la toxicité de la kétamine est son effet délétère sur l'appareil urinaire et l'apparition de cystites induite> par la kétamine, une condition décrite pour la première fois en 2007. a toxicité de la kétamine se manifeste également au niveau gastro­ intestinal et sur les plans psychologiques et cognitifs. Les intoxications aigües à la kétamine se manifestent par des symptômes cardiovasculaires ainsi qu'une altération de la conscience et des vertiges. e risque de décès par overdose après ingestion de kétamine seule est faible, mais de par ses effets psychodysleptiques et analgésiques, la kétamine expose le consommateur à un haut risque d'accident.Récemment, la méthoxétamine a été présentée et vendue comme une alternative à la kétamine légale et non dangereuse pour la vessie. Les recherches effectuées actuellement laissent penser que sa toxicité urinaire serait similaire à celle de la kétamine, et des cas d'intoxication et de décès liés à la méthoxétamine ont déjà été rapportés.

Ketamine --- Ketamine

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In the past, ketamine was considered a dangerous medication with the potential for abuse as a recreational drug. Healthcare providers were warned of its dangers and taught to fear its use. With this book, we hope to eliminate any fear and misgivings associated with this drug. It can be a useful medication in many situations, some of which we describe herein. This book discusses the use of ketamine in anesthesia, pain disorders, depression, palliative care, and trauma situations. It also examines ketamine usage in developing countries.

Ketamine. --- Anesthetics.

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Ketamine --- Analgesics --- Analgesia

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In the past, ketamine was considered a dangerous medication with the potential for abuse as a recreational drug. Healthcare providers were warned of its dangers and taught to fear its use. With this book, we hope to eliminate any fear and misgivings associated with this drug. It can be a useful medication in many situations, some of which we describe herein. This book discusses the use of ketamine in anesthesia, pain disorders, depression, palliative care, and trauma situations. It also examines ketamine usage in developing countries.

Ketamine. --- Amines --- Anesthesia adjuvants --- Chlorobenzene --- Hexane

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The purpose of this collection is to provide a forum to integrate pre-clinical and clinical investigations regarding the long-term consequences of adolescent exposure to drugs of abuse. Adolescence is characterized by numerous behavioral and biological changes, including substantial neurodevelopment. Behaviorally, adolescents are more likely to engage in risky activities and make impulsive decisions. As such, the majority of substance use begins in adolescence, and an earlier age of onset of use (<15 yr) is strongly associated with the risk for developing a substance use disorder later in life. Furthermore, adolescent drug use may negatively impact ongoing neurological development, which could lead to long-term cognitive and emotional deficits. A large number of clinical studies have investigated both the acute and long-term effects of adolescent drug use on functional outcomes. However, the clinical literature contains many conflicting findings, and is often hampered by the inability to know if functional differences existed prior to drug use. Moreover, in human populations it is often very difficult to control for the numerous types of drugs, doses, and combinations used, not to mention the many other environmental factors that may influence adult behavior. Therefore, an increase in the number of carefully controlled studies using relevant animal models has the potential to clarify which adolescent experiences, particularly what drugs used when, have long-term negative consequences. Despite the advantages of animal model systems in clarifying these issues, the majority of pre-clinical addiction research over the past 50+ years has been conducted in adult animals. Moreover, few addiction-related studies have investigated the long-term neurocognitive consequences of drug exposure at any age. In the past 10 years of so, however, the field of adolescent drug abuse research has burgeoned. To date, the majority of this research has focused on adolescent alcohol exposure using a variety of animal models. The results have given the field important insight into why adolescents are more likely to drink alcohol to excess relative to adults, and the danger of adolescent alcohol use (e.g., in leading to a persistence of excessive drinking in adulthood). More recently, research regarding the effects of adolescent exposure to other drugs of abuse, including nicotine, cocaine, and cannabinoids has expanded. Therefore, we are at unique point in time, when emerging results from carefully controlled pre-clinical studies can inform the sometimes confusing clinical literature. In addition, we expect an influx of prospective clinical studies in response to a cross-institute initiative at NIH, known as the ABCD grant. Several institutes are enrolling children prior to adolescence (and the initiation of drug use), in order to control for pre-existing neurobiological and neurobehavioral differences and to monitor the age of initiation and amount of drug used more carefully than is possible using retrospective designs.

alcohol --- stress --- nicotine --- cocaine --- ketamine --- methamphetamine --- cannabinoid --- prefrontal cortex --- juvenile --- sex differences --- alcohol --- stress --- nicotine --- cocaine --- ketamine --- methamphetamine --- cannabinoid --- prefrontal cortex --- juvenile --- sex differences