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Although the existing literature identifies a fuel levy imposed by means of a global agreement as the most efficient policy for carbon pricing in the maritime sector, scholars and policy makers debate the possibility for regional measures to be introduced in case a global agreement cannot be achieved. This debate has highlighted several economic, legal, and political challenges that the implementation of an efficient and effective regional scheme would have to face. This paper compares the relative performance of various regional measures for carbon pricing based on the following criteria: jurisdictional basis, data availability, environmental effectiveness and avoidance strategies, impact on competitiveness, differentiation for developing countries, and incentives for reaching a global agreement. The main finding is that, if carefully designed, a cargo-based measure that covers the emissions released throughout the whole voyage to the cargo destination presents various advantages compared with other carbon pricing schemes. These advantages have been largely ignored in the literature.
Carbon Pricing --- CBDRRC --- Climate Change Policy and Regulation --- Data Availability --- Economic Adjustment and Lending --- Energy --- Energy Production and Transportation --- Environment --- Environmental Effectiveness --- Global Environment Facility --- Governance --- Industry --- Judicial Systems Reform --- Jurisdiction --- Law and Development --- Legal Products --- Legal Reform --- Macroeconomics and Economic Growth --- Maritime Emissions --- Public Sector Development --- Regional Measures --- Science and Technology Development --- Social Development --- Social Policy --- Technology Industry --- Technology Innovation
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Sustainable Development Goal 16 is explicitly committed to measuring aspects of corruption over time, and the identification of robust indicators to do so is an important endeavor. This paper critically reviews the strengths and weaknesses of various objective and subjective indicators of corruption, using the standard criteria of validity and reliability to identify indicators most salient to measuring Sustainable Development Goal 16. Consistent with the large literature in the field, the paper finds that the aggregate survey-based indicators of corruption, especially the Corruption Perceptions Index and the World Bank's Control of Corruption indicator, despite some important reservations and limitations, are the most valid measures of the magnitude of overall corruption in many country contexts. However, in every case, the initial results using one indicator should be cross checked with the use of the other indicator, as there are some minor differences between how the two indicators are constructed, and in practice it is difficult to establish a priori which indicator is marginally more efficient. Furthermore, whenever possible, subjective indicators should be cross checked with objective indicators, even when the latter may be of a more narrow scope and time limited availability.
Anti-Corruption --- Economics and Institutions --- Governance --- Governance Indicators --- Judicial Systems Reform --- Legal Products --- Legal Reform --- National Governance --- Non-Governmental Organizations --- Public Sector --- Public Sector Development --- Public Sector Management and Reform --- Social Policy --- Sustainable Development Goals --- Technology Industry --- Technology Innovation --- Youth & Governance
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