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This paper analyzes a randomized experiment that uses novel strategies to promote handwashing with soap at critical times in Peru. It evaluates a large-scale intervention that includes a mass media provincial campaign and a district-level community component. The analysis finds that the mass media intervention alone had no significant effect on exposure to the handwashing promotion campaign messages, and therefore no effect on handwashing knowledge or handwashing behavior. In contrast, the community-level intervention, a more comprehensive intervention that included several community and school activities in addition to the communications campaign, was successful in reaching the target audience with handwashing promotion messages and in improving the knowledge of the treated population on appropriate handwashing behavior. Those improvements translated into higher self-reported and observed handwashing with soap at critical junctures. However, no significant improvements in the health of children under the age of five were observed. The results are consistent with earlier literature, which indicates that substantively changing behavior to improve health is a complex task requiring intensive and more personalized interventions.

Behavior change --- Disease Control & Prevention --- Handwashing --- Health Monitoring & Evaluation --- Housing & Human Habitats --- Hygiene --- Hygiene Promotion and Social Marketing --- Population Policies --- Randomized evaluation --- Water Supply and Sanitation

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Using mobile phone technologies coupled with water quality testing, there is great opportunity to increase the awareness of water quality throughout rural and urban communities in developing countries. Whether the focus is on empowering citizens with information about the quality of water they use in daily life or providing scientific data to water managers to help them deliver safe water to the citizens, the integration of citizen science, crowdsourcing, and innovative technologies has the potential to create positive and lasting change. The methodology presented herein combines empowerment of the public through participation in the scientific process (citizen science) with modern technologies to collect, gather, and disseminate data (crowdsourcing). By employing a crowdsourcing approach with innovative technologies, there is potential to harness large amounts of data in areas previously considered either too remote or costly to access. The purpose of this conceptual framework is to outline the considerations and activities to be undertaken for a successful water quality monitoring project using citizen science and crowdsourcing. Specifically included in the framework are: (1) the research question to be answered through the project; (2) the theory of change that will lead to desired outcomes; (3) project design considerations to promote a successful pilot; and (4) the methodology outlining implementation steps.

Citizen Participation --- Community Participation in Water Supply and Sanitation --- Crowdsourcing --- Hygiene Promotion and Social Marketing --- Needs Assessment --- Water Supply and Sanitation --- Water Treatment & Quality

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Hygiene information and practices play a critical role in preventing diseases, particularly among children. Hygiene behaviors practiced in the household have been linked to development outcomes such as socio-emotional skills. This paper exploits data from impact evaluation surveys of a hygiene information campaign conducted in Senegal, where the randomized design suffered from contamination between comparison groups. The variations in exposure and intensity to hygiene information campaigns captured in the surveys were used to understand contamination biases. Such variations were interacted with the presence of household communication assets to explore potential effects on children's socio-emotional scores. In the presence of contamination biases, the study exploited the longitudinal sample of children in the surveys to reduce time-dependent biases. For robustness, statistical matching was applied between the impact evaluation surveys and Demographic and Health Surveys conducted in 2008 and 2011. Socio-emotional outcomes were the imputed into Demographic and Health surveys to expand sample sizes. By applying matching techniques and imputing outcomes into a larger sample, impacts were non-negligible. Double-difference estimates showed that children's socio-emotional scores were higher when intervention status was interacted with the presence of communication assets within households. Without the presence of communication assets in the households the impacts were close to zero. Evaluating the effect of hygiene campaigns on children's socio-emotional skills is challenging because of the biases from contamination that exist when information flows between comparison groups. Targeted hygiene information to the poorest households is relevant for reducing risks of recurrent infections and enables better conditions for socio-emotional development of children.

Cognitive development --- Disease control & prevention --- Education --- Educational sciences --- Health --- Health monitoring & evaluation --- Health, nutrition and population --- Hygiene promotion and social marketing --- Primary education --- Sanitation --- Water supply and sanitation

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The objective of this report is to provide an empirical basis for more inclusive and equitable service delivery in the water and sanitation sector in Indonesia. Although the GoI has established a program and strategy for achieving universal access to water supply and sanitation and zero slums (the 100-0-100 program, which aims for 100 percent access to water supply, zero urban slums, and 100 percent access to sanitation), these targets will be achieved through different service level sub-targets. For water supply, the target is for 40 percent of the population to have access to piped water and 60 percent to non-piped (in urban areas, 60 percent piped and 40 percent non-piped), whereas for sanitation, universal access is defined as 15 percent of the population having access to basic sanitation (a toilet that ensures hygienic separation of human excreta from human contact), 12.5 percent to centralized and decentralized sewerage systems, and 72.5 percent to on-site sanitation with improved fecal waste management. A poor-inclusive approach to universal access-one that improves the ability of and opportunity for the poor and vulnerable to benefit from water and sanitation services-can help to ensure that Indonesia not only achieves its service delivery targets, but that water supply and sanitation become key drivers of a reduction in inequality, enhanced health and well-being, and economic growth and prosperity. Policy recommendations are prioritized based on their expected impact on these development goals, and the strength of the evidence base for the solution proposed.

Access of Poor to Social Services --- Hygiene --- Hygiene Promotion and Social Marketing --- Inequality --- Nutrition --- Poverty --- Poverty Reduction --- Water Policy & Governance --- Water Resources --- Water Supply --- Water Supply and Sanitation --- Water Supply and Sanitation Economics --- Water Supply and Sanitation Governance and Institutions

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Indigenous peoples in Latin American and the Caribbean (LAC) are 10 to 25 percent less likely to have access to piped water and 26 percent less likely to have access to improved sanitation solutions than the region's non-indigenous population. Historically, Indigenous peoples have been marginalized from the development process in their own countries and still suffer discrimination from the mainstream societies today. Oftentimes, Indigenous territories are overlooked or avoided by Water Supply and Sanitation (WSS) project planners and proponents given their lack of understanding of how to engage or carry out projects in collective or semi-autonomous Indigenous territories, the remoteness of these areas, and the high associated per capita cost of a potential operation, among other reasons. The significant gap in Indigenous peoples' access to WSS services, a basic human right that is closely linked to economic and social wellbeing, alongside the lack of established tools in the sector to guide engagement in Indigenous territories, motivated the creation of this Toolkit. The objective of the Toolkit is to provide practical guidance and operational tools to improve the inclusion of, engagement with, and delivery of sustainable WSS services to Indigenous peoples in LAC in order to permanently close the WSS service gap. The Toolkit summarizes the findings of interviews, consultations, and field visits carried out by a multi-sector, multi-national World Bank Team in 37 Indigenous communities located in urban, peri-urban and rural areas in seven LAC countries where the World Bank or other development actors had implemented WSS projects with Indigenous peoples.

Climate --- Hygiene --- Hygiene Promotion and Social Marketing --- Indigenous Peoples --- Monitoring and Evaluation --- Sanitation and Sewerage --- Water Resources --- Water Supply and Sanitation --- Water Supply and Sanitation Finance --- Water Supply and Sanitation Governance and Institutions --- Water Use