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Human infants. --- Human. --- Infant. --- Rhythmical stereotypies. --- Stereotypies. --- Stereotypy.

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This paper reviews the reasons why domestic dogs make good models to investigate cognitive processes related to social living and describes experimental approaches that can be adopted to investigate such processes in dogs. Domestic dogs are suitable models for investigating social cognition skills for three broad reasons. First, dogs originated from wolves, social animals that engage in a number of co-operative behaviours, such as hunting and that may have evolved cognitive abilities that help them predict and interpret the actions of other animals. Second, during domestication dogs are likely to have been selected for mental adaptations for their roles in human society such as herding or companionship. Third, domestic dogs live in a human world and "enculturation" may facilitate the development of relevant mental skills in dogs. Studies of social cognition in animals commonly use experimental paradigms originally developed for pre-verbal human infants. Preferential gaze, for example, can be used as a measure of attention or "surprise" in studies using expectancy violation. This approach has been used to demonstrate simple numerical competence in dogs. Dogs also readily use both conspecific and human social signals (e.g. looking or pointing) as information sources to locate hidden rewards such as food or favourite toys. Such abilities make dogs particularly good models for investigating perspective-taking tasks, where animals are required to discriminate between apparently knowledgeable and apparently ignorant informants.

Ability. --- Adaptation. --- Animal. --- Animals. --- Attention. --- Behaviour. --- Canis-familiaris. --- Canis. --- Cognition. --- Cognitive-ability. --- Conspecific. --- Development. --- Discriminate. --- Dog. --- Dogs. --- Domestic dog. --- Domestication. --- Food. --- Human infants. --- Human. --- Hunting. --- Infant. --- Model. --- Models. --- Paper. --- Review. --- Reward. --- Social. --- Task. --- Tasks. --- Toy. --- Wolf. --- Wolves.

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Attentional set-shifting and discrimination reversal are sensitive to prefrontal damage in the marmoset in a manner qualitatively similar to that seen in man and Old World monkeys, respectively (Dias et al., 1996b), Preliminary findings have demonstrated that although lateral but not orbital prefrontal cortex is the critical locus in shifting an attentional set between perceptual dimensions, orbital but not lateral prefrontal cortex is the critical locus in reversing a stimulus-reward association within a particular perceptual dimension (Dias et al., 1996a). The present study presents this analysis in full and extends the results in three main ways by demonstrating that (1) mechanisms of inhibitory control and "on-line" processing are independent within the prefrontal cortex, (2) impairments in inhibitory control induced by prefrontal damage are restricted to novel situations, and (3) those prefrontal areas involved in the suppression of previously established response sets are not involved in the acquisition of such response sets. These findings suggest that inhibitory control is a general process that operates across functionally distinct regions within the prefrontal cortex. Although damage to lateral prefrontal cortex causes a loss of inhibitory control in attentional selection, damage to orbitofrontal cortex causes a loss of inhibitory control in affective processing. These findings provide an explanation for the apparent discrepancy between human and nonhuman primate studies in which disinhibition as measured on the Wisconsin Card Sort Test is associated with dorsolateral prefrontal damage, whereas disinhibition as measured on discrimination reversal is associated with orbitofrontal damage

Acquisition. --- Analysis. --- Area. --- Association. --- Attentional set shifting. --- Attentional set-shifting. --- Control. --- Cortex. --- Damage. --- Deficits. --- Dimension. --- Dimensions. --- Discrimination. --- Disinhibition. --- Excitotoxic lesions. --- Frontal-lobe damage. --- Human infants. --- Human. --- Impairments. --- Man. --- Marmoset. --- Mechanisms. --- Memory. --- Monkey. --- Monkeys. --- Object. --- Old. --- Orbitofrontal cortex. --- Prefrontal cortex. --- Primate. --- Response inhibition. --- Response. --- Restriction. --- Reversal learning. --- Rhesus-monkeys. --- Selection. --- Situations. --- Suppression. --- Test. --- Time. --- Wisconsin card sort test. --- Working memory.