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This open access book provides an overview and analysis of the causes and consequences of the massive and highly consequential transition in reproductive behaviour that occurred in Asia, Latin America, and Africa since the mid-20th century. In the 1950s contraceptive use was rare and women typically spend most of their reproductive years bearing and rearing children. By 2020 fertility and contraceptive use in Asia and Latin America reached levels commonly observed in the developed world. Africa’s fertility is still high, but transitions have started in all countries. This monograph is the first to provide a comprehensive analysis of these trends and their determinants, covering changes in reproductive behaviour (e.g., use of contraception and abortion), preferences (e.g., desire to limit and space births) and the role of socioeconomic development (e.g., education). The role of government policies and in particular family planning programs is discussed in depth. Particular attention is given to provide a balanced assessment of several political and scientific controversies that have beset the field. As such this book provides an interesting read for a wide audience of undergraduate and graduate students, researchers, and public health policy makers.

Population & demography --- Political economy --- Public health & preventive medicine --- Fertility transition --- Developing world --- Determinants of fertility --- Family planning programs --- Population policies --- Fertility policies --- Fertility trends --- Fertility decline --- Fertility preferences --- Socio-economic determinants in fertility decline --- Demographic transition --- Impact of population policies --- Political controversy over population policy --- Reproductive behaviour transition

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June 1999 - The proportions of girls 'missing' rose sharply in these countries during times of war, famine, and fertility decline. Resulting shortages of wives improved the treatment of adult women without reducing discrimination against daughters or increasing women's autonomy. The latter goals can be reached only with fundamental changes in women's family position-changes that are taking place only slowly. Kinship systems in China, the Republic of Korea, and North India have similar features that generate discrimination against girls, and these countries have some of the highest proportions of girls 'missing' in the world. Das Gupta and Li document how the excess mortality of girls was increased by war, famine, and fertility decline-all of which constrained household resources-between 1920 and 1990. Of the three countries, China experienced the most crises during this period (with civil war, invasion, and famine). The resulting excess mortality of girls in China offset the demographic forces making for a surplus of wives as overall mortality rates declined. India had the quietest history during this period, and consequently followed the expected pattern of a growing surplus of available wives. These changes in sex ratios had substantial social ramifications. The authors hypothesize that these demographic factors: Encouraged the continuation of brideprice in China, while in India there was a shift to dowry; Influenced the extent and manifestations of violence against women. An oversupply of women is the worst scenario for women, as there are fewer constraints to domestic violence. A shortage of women leads to better treatment of wives, as people become more careful not to lose a wife. However in situations of shortage, a small proportion of women may be subject to new types of violence such as being kidnapped for marriage. Ironically, then, higher levels of discrimination against girls can help reduce violence against women. When women are in short supply, their treatment improves. But their autonomy can increase only with fundamental changes in their family position, changes that are taking place only slowly. This paper-a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group-is part of a larger effort in the group to study social institutions and development outcomes. Monica Das Gupta may be contacted at mdasgupta@worldbank.org.

Center For Population --- Child Mortality --- Child Survival --- Discrimination --- Fertility --- Fertility Decline --- Gender --- Gender and Law --- Gender Bias --- Health, Nutrition and Population --- Law and Development --- Marriage --- National Level --- Number Of Births --- Population --- Population And Development --- Population Policies --- Population Research --- Poverty --- Resource Constraint --- Sex --- Sex Ratios --- Son Preference --- United Nations Population Fund --- War

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Using a stochastic general equilibrium model with overlapping generations, this paper studies (i) the effects on both extensive and intensive labor supply responses to changes in fertility rates, and (ii) the potential of a retirement reform to mitigate the effects of fertility changes on labor supply. In order to neutralize the effects on effective labor supply of a fertility decline, a retirement reform, designed to increase labor supply at the extensive margin, is found to simultaneously reduce labor supply at the intensive margin. This backlash to retirement reform requires the statutory retirement age to increase more than proportionally to fertility changes in order to compensate for endogenous responses of the intensity of labor supply. The robustness of this result is checked against alternative model specifications and calibrations relevant to an economic region such as Europe.

Economic implications --- Economic Theory & Research --- Fertility decline --- Fertility rates --- General equilibrium --- Health, Nutrition and Population --- Labor Markets --- Labor Policies --- Labour supply --- Macroeconomics and Economic Growth --- Overlapping generations model --- Pensions & Retirement Systems --- Policy Research Working Paper --- Population Policies --- Retirement --- Retirement age --- Retirement Policy --- Social Protections and Labor