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This paper uses measures of cognitive and noncognitive skills in an expanded definition of human capital to examine how schooling and skills differ between men and women and how those differences relate to gender gaps in earnings across nine middle-income countries. The analysis finds that post-secondary schooling and cognitive skills are more important for women's earnings at the lower end and middle of the earnings distribution, and that men and women have positive returns to openness to new experiences and risk-taking behavior and negative returns to hostile attribution bias. Especially at the lower end of the earnings distribution, women are disadvantaged not so much by having lower human capital than men, but by institutional factors such as wage structures that reward women's human capital systematically less than men's.

Economics Of Gender --- Educational Sciences --- Gender --- Gender & Development --- Human Capital --- Labor Markets --- Returns To Education --- Rural Development --- Rural Labor Markets --- Social Protections and Labor --- Wage Differentials

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Stephan Klasen is considered one of the most distinguished scholars on gender economics in the 21st century. Over the past 25 years, he has tirelessly worked to understand the complex phenomena of gender inequality: From counting the number of missing women in the world and shedding light on why women go missing, to showing that leaving girls out of school not only deprives them, but also robs society of the opportunity to thrive on the talents of its entire population; from understanding why equal rights and rising incomes everywhere have not resulted in women participating more at work, to measuring gender inequality in its various dimensions. This volume, a collection of some of Stephan Klasen's most important writings on the topic of gender inequality, honours his academic life and gives the reader an in-depth insight into both what we know and don't (yet) know about the economics of gender inequality.

gender bias --- female labor force participation --- missing women --- gender index --- education --- gender gap --- economics of gender --- occupational segregation --- gender --- developing countries --- growth

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The benefits of gender diversity are well known – it increases effectiveness and efficiency and strengthens decision-making. Yet, the IMF Executive Board continues to fall short of reaching gender balance, with women constituting a small minority of the Executive Directors and Alternate Executive Directors. There is a clear need for change. The IMFC has called on the membership to take action, including by introducing voluntary medium-term objectives to raise the number of women holding leadership positions at the Board. This report summarizes the Executive Board’s recommendations for these targets and lays out proposals for concerted actions that can be taken by individual countries and constituencies.

Economics of Gender --- Economics --- Gender diversity --- Gender Studies --- Gender studies --- Gender studies, gender groups --- Gender --- Monetary economics --- Monetary Policy --- Monetary policy --- Money and Monetary Policy --- Non-labor Discrimination --- Political Economy --- Political economy --- Sex role --- Women & girls --- Women --- Women's Studies

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This paper argues that sex discrimination is an inefficient practice. We model sex discrimination as the complete exclusion of females from the labor market or as the exclusion of females from managerial positions. The former implies a reduction in GDP per capita; the latter distorts the allocation of talent and lowers economic growth. Both imply lower female-to-male schooling ratios. Our model predicts a convex relationship between nondiscrimination and growth. Although discrimination is difficult to measure, it will be reflected in schooling differentials. We present evidence based on cross-country regressions that is consistent with a convex relationship between schooling differentials and growth.

Labor --- Women''s Studies' --- One, Two, and Multisector Growth Models --- Human Capital --- Skills --- Occupational Choice --- Labor Productivity --- Economics of Gender --- Non-labor Discrimination --- Education: General --- Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs: General --- Demand and Supply of Labor: General --- Education --- Labour --- income economics --- Gender studies --- women & girls --- Women --- Wages --- Human capital --- Labor markets --- Labor market --- Income economics --- Women & girls --- Women's Studies

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This paper examines Cambodia’s Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper Progress. The Cambodian economy grew by 5.2 percent in 2003 compared with 5.5 percent in 2002, led by continued growth in garments exports, a rebound in overall investments and an upward surge in agricultural production. The drop in foreign direct investment has been more than compensated by domestic private investment and higher consumption induced by higher public spending. Moreover, the weakness in the service sector receipts has been offset by continued strong growth in garments exports.

Budgeting --- Macroeconomics --- Women''s Studies' --- Education: General --- Health: General --- National Budget --- Budget Systems --- Labor Economics: General --- Economics of Gender --- Non-labor Discrimination --- Education --- Health economics --- Budgeting & financial management --- Labour --- income economics --- Gender studies --- women & girls --- Health --- Budget planning and preparation --- Labor --- Women --- Public financial management (PFM) --- Gender --- Budget --- Labor economics --- Cambodia --- Income economics --- Women & girls --- Women's Studies