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This paper provides counterexamples to the idea that mitigation of greenhouse gases causing climate change, and adaptation to climate change, are always and everywhere substitutes. The author considers optimal policy for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions when climate damages follow a geometric Brownian motion process with positive drift, and the trajectory for damages can be down-shifted by adaptive activities, focusing on two main cases: 1) damages are reduced proportionately by adaptation for any given climate impact ("reactive adaptation"); and 2) the growth path for climate damages is down-shifted ("anticipatory adaptation"). In this model mitigation is a lumpy one-off decision. Policy to reduce damages for given emissions is continuous in case 1, but may be lumpy in case 2, and reduces both expectation and variance of damages. Lower expected damages promote mitigation, and reduced variance discourages it (as the option value of waiting is reduced). In case 1, the last effect may dominate. Mitigation then increases when damages are dampened: mitigation and adaptation are complements. In case 2, mitigation and adaptation are always substitutes.

Adaptation --- Adaptation to Climate Change --- Climate Change Economics --- Climate Change Mitigation and Green House Gases --- Climate Change Policy and Regulation --- Climate Damages --- Energy --- Environment --- Mitigation --- Option Values --- Science of Climate Change --- Uncertainty

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Although the existing literature identifies a fuel levy imposed by means of a global agreement as the most efficient policy for carbon pricing in the maritime sector, scholars and policy makers debate the possibility for regional measures to be introduced in case a global agreement cannot be achieved. This debate has highlighted several economic, legal, and political challenges that the implementation of an efficient and effective regional scheme would have to face. This paper compares the relative performance of various regional measures for carbon pricing based on the following criteria: jurisdictional basis, data availability, environmental effectiveness and avoidance strategies, impact on competitiveness, differentiation for developing countries, and incentives for reaching a global agreement. The main finding is that, if carefully designed, a cargo-based measure that covers the emissions released throughout the whole voyage to the cargo destination presents various advantages compared with other carbon pricing schemes. These advantages have been largely ignored in the literature.

Carbon Pricing --- CBDRRC --- Climate Change Policy and Regulation --- Data Availability --- Economic Adjustment and Lending --- Energy --- Energy Production and Transportation --- Environment --- Environmental Effectiveness --- Global Environment Facility --- Governance --- Industry --- Judicial Systems Reform --- Jurisdiction --- Law and Development --- Legal Products --- Legal Reform --- Macroeconomics and Economic Growth --- Maritime Emissions --- Public Sector Development --- Regional Measures --- Science and Technology Development --- Social Development --- Social Policy --- Technology Industry --- Technology Innovation