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What are the current trends and main characteristics of public education spending in Indonesia? Is education spending insufficient? Are expenditures in education efficient and equitable? This study reports the first account of Indonesia's aggregated (national and sub-national) spending on education, as well as the economic composition of education spending and its breakdown by programs. It presents estimations of the expected (average) level of education spending for a country with its economic and social characteristics. This analysis sheds light on the efficiency and equity of education spending by presenting social rates of return by level of education, by assessing the adequacy of current teacher earnings relative to other paid workers and the distribution of teachers across urban, rural, and remote regions, and by identifying the main determinants of education enrollment. It concludes that the current challenges in Indonesia are no longer defined by the need of additional spending, but rather the need to improve the quality of education services, and to improve the efficiency of education expenditures by re-allocating teachers to undersupplied regions and re-adjusting the spending mix within and between education programs for future additional spending in the sector. The study finds that poverty and student-aged labor are also significant constraints to education enrollment, stressing the importance of policies aimed at addressing demand-side factors.

Academic year --- Access and Equity in Basic Education --- Education --- Education expenditures --- Education for All --- Effective Schools and Teachers --- Formal education --- Level of education --- Levels of education --- Primary Education --- Private schools --- Quality of education --- Quality of education services --- Teacher --- Teachers --- Tertiary Education

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What are the current trends and main characteristics of public education spending in Indonesia? Is education spending insufficient? Are expenditures in education efficient and equitable? This study reports the first account of Indonesia's aggregated (national and sub-national) spending on education, as well as the economic composition of education spending and its breakdown by programs. It presents estimations of the expected (average) level of education spending for a country with its economic and social characteristics. This analysis sheds light on the efficiency and equity of education spending by presenting social rates of return by level of education, by assessing the adequacy of current teacher earnings relative to other paid workers and the distribution of teachers across urban, rural, and remote regions, and by identifying the main determinants of education enrollment. It concludes that the current challenges in Indonesia are no longer defined by the need of additional spending, but rather the need to improve the quality of education services, and to improve the efficiency of education expenditures by re-allocating teachers to undersupplied regions and re-adjusting the spending mix within and between education programs for future additional spending in the sector. The study finds that poverty and student-aged labor are also significant constraints to education enrollment, stressing the importance of policies aimed at addressing demand-side factors.

Academic year --- Access and Equity in Basic Education --- Education --- Education expenditures --- Education for All --- Effective Schools and Teachers --- Formal education --- Level of education --- Levels of education --- Primary Education --- Private schools --- Quality of education --- Quality of education services --- Teacher --- Teachers --- Tertiary Education

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In 2009, the Mexican state of Colima implemented a low-stakes accountability intervention with diagnostic feedback among 108 public primary schools with the lowest test scores in the national student assessment. A difference-in-difference and a regression discontinuity design are used to identify the effects of the intervention on learning outcomes. The two alternative strategies consistently show that the intervention increased test scores by 0.12 standard deviations only a few months after the program was launched. When students, teachers, and parents in a school know that their scores are low, and this triggers a process of self-evaluation and analysis, the process itself may lead to an improvement in learning outcomes. Information on quality, without punitive measures but within a supportive and collaborative environment, appears to be sufficient to improve learning outcomes.

Academic areas --- Academic year --- Achievement --- Age-grade distortion --- Average number of students --- Average score --- Average test scores --- Classroom --- Classrooms --- College --- Community schools --- Curriculum --- Decentralization --- Diplomas --- Economics of education --- Education --- Education authorities --- Education for all --- Education of teachers --- Education policies --- Education programs --- Education services --- Education system --- Educational authorities --- Educational programs --- Effective schools & teachers --- Exam --- Future research --- Girls --- Goals --- Grade retention --- Grade schools --- Graduate --- Graduate diploma --- Groups --- Innovative education --- Interventions --- ITS --- Knowledge --- Learning --- Learning outcomes --- Let --- Literacy --- Math scores --- Math test --- Ministry of education --- Mobility --- National educational programs --- National school --- Number of schools --- Number of students --- Number of teachers --- Online access --- Open access --- Papers --- Pedagogical tools --- Performance in math --- Performance of schools --- Primary education --- Primary schools --- Principals --- Public primary schools --- Public school --- Public school teachers --- Public schools --- Quality education --- Quality of education --- Quality of education services --- Report cards --- Research --- School --- School census --- School directors --- School improvement --- School improvement plan --- School improvement program --- School leaders --- School level --- School performance --- School principals --- School quality --- School size --- School supervision --- School supervisors --- School system --- School teachers --- School year --- Schooling --- Schools --- Science --- Secondary education --- Skills --- Standardized tests --- State education --- Statistics --- Strategies --- Student --- Student achievement --- Student assessment --- Student learning --- Student learning outcomes --- Student mobility --- Student outcomes --- Student performance --- Student population --- Student-Teacher ratio --- Student/teacher ratio --- Students --- Studies --- Study --- Subject areas --- Subjects --- Teacher --- Teacher ratio --- Teacher unions --- Teachers --- Teaching --- Tertiary education --- Test scores --- Tests --- Training --- Tuition --- University --- University degree

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This paper estimates the impacts of secondary school on human capital, occupational choice, and fertility for young adults in Kenya. The probability of admission to government secondary school rises sharply at a score close to the national mean on a standardized 8th grade examination, permitting the estimation of causal effects of schooling in a regression discontinuity framework. The analysis combines administrative test score data with a recent survey of young adults to estimate these impacts. The results show that secondary schooling increases human capital, as measured by performance on cognitive tests included in the survey. For men, there is a drop in the probability of low-skill self-employment, as well as suggestive evidence of a rise in the probability of formal employment. The opportunity to attend secondary school also reduces teen pregnancy among women.

Academic year --- Adults --- Average schooling --- Basic education --- Catholic schools --- Childbearing --- Class size --- Class-size --- Cognitive performance --- Cognitive test --- Development goals --- Development policy --- Disasters --- District education --- Early marriage --- Educated parents --- Education --- Education for all --- Education investments --- Education offices --- Education policy --- Education system --- Educational attainment --- Educational participation --- Effects of education --- Examination --- Fees --- Female education --- Female schooling --- Fertility --- First births --- First child --- Free primary education --- Gender parity --- Girls' schools --- Grade repetition --- Health, nutrition and population --- High school --- HIV --- Human capital --- Human capital accumulation --- Human development --- Impact of education --- Infant --- Infant health --- Labor market --- Labor markets --- Learning --- Learning outcomes --- Level of education --- Literacy --- Low-income country --- Marriage --- Millennium development goals --- Mother --- National boundaries --- National schools --- Natural disasters --- Number of schools --- Number of students --- Older men --- Parents' education --- Policies --- Policy --- Policy change --- Policy discussions --- Policy research --- Policy research working paper --- Population --- Population growth --- Population policies --- Populations --- Pregnancies --- Pregnancy --- Pregnancy by age --- Primary education --- Primary education policy --- Primary education system --- Primary school --- Primary school leaving examination --- Primary schooling --- Primary schools --- Private schools --- Private secondary schools --- Progress --- Public examination system --- Public schools --- Public services --- Publishers --- Rates of population --- Respect --- Returns to education --- Rural areas --- School --- School administrators --- School attendance --- School completion --- School construction --- School enrollment --- School entry --- School fees --- School leaders --- School leaving examination --- School participation --- School quality --- Schooling --- Schools --- Secondary education --- Secondary school --- Secondary schooling --- Secondary schools --- Sex --- Sexual behavior --- Skills --- Spouse --- Student achievement --- Students --- Teachers --- Teen --- Teen pregnancy --- Teens --- Tertiary education --- Textbooks --- Universal primary education --- Urban centers --- Values --- Vocational education --- Vocational schools --- War --- Women --- Young adults --- Young men --- Young women

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In 2009, the Mexican state of Colima implemented a low-stakes accountability intervention with diagnostic feedback among 108 public primary schools with the lowest test scores in the national student assessment. A difference-in-difference and a regression discontinuity design are used to identify the effects of the intervention on learning outcomes. The two alternative strategies consistently show that the intervention increased test scores by 0.12 standard deviations only a few months after the program was launched. When students, teachers, and parents in a school know that their scores are low, and this triggers a process of self-evaluation and analysis, the process itself may lead to an improvement in learning outcomes. Information on quality, without punitive measures but within a supportive and collaborative environment, appears to be sufficient to improve learning outcomes.

Academic areas --- Academic year --- Achievement --- Age-grade distortion --- Average number of students --- Average score --- Average test scores --- Classroom --- Classrooms --- College --- Community schools --- Curriculum --- Decentralization --- Diplomas --- Economics of education --- Education --- Education authorities --- Education for all --- Education of teachers --- Education policies --- Education programs --- Education services --- Education system --- Educational authorities --- Educational programs --- Effective schools & teachers --- Exam --- Future research --- Girls --- Goals --- Grade retention --- Grade schools --- Graduate --- Graduate diploma --- Groups --- Innovative education --- Interventions --- ITS --- Knowledge --- Learning --- Learning outcomes --- Let --- Literacy --- Math scores --- Math test --- Ministry of education --- Mobility --- National educational programs --- National school --- Number of schools --- Number of students --- Number of teachers --- Online access --- Open access --- Papers --- Pedagogical tools --- Performance in math --- Performance of schools --- Primary education --- Primary schools --- Principals --- Public primary schools --- Public school --- Public school teachers --- Public schools --- Quality education --- Quality of education --- Quality of education services --- Report cards --- Research --- School --- School census --- School directors --- School improvement --- School improvement plan --- School improvement program --- School leaders --- School level --- School performance --- School principals --- School quality --- School size --- School supervision --- School supervisors --- School system --- School teachers --- School year --- Schooling --- Schools --- Science --- Secondary education --- Skills --- Standardized tests --- State education --- Statistics --- Strategies --- Student --- Student achievement --- Student assessment --- Student learning --- Student learning outcomes --- Student mobility --- Student outcomes --- Student performance --- Student population --- Student-Teacher ratio --- Student/teacher ratio --- Students --- Studies --- Study --- Subject areas --- Subjects --- Teacher --- Teacher ratio --- Teacher unions --- Teachers --- Teaching --- Tertiary education --- Test scores --- Tests --- Training --- Tuition --- University --- University degree