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In Bulgaria, Hungary, and Poland, the higher the relative household income is, the higher the savings rate is. But, surprisingly, savings rates appear to be unaffected by either sector of employment (public or private) or form of employment. Savings rates are significantly higher for households that do not own their own homes or that own few of the standard consumer durables - possibly because, with no retail credit or mortgage markets, households must save to purchase houses and durables; During the transition from central planning to market economies now under way in Eastern Europe, output levels first collapsed by 40 to 50 percent in most countries, then staged a modest recovery in the last two years. Longer-term revival of growth requires a resumption of investment and thus, realistically, of domestic savings. To explore the determinants of household savings rates in transition economies, Denizer, Wolf, and Ying studied matching household surveys for three Central European economies: Bulgaria, Hungary, and Poland. They find that savings rates strongly increase with relative income, suggesting that increasing income inequality may play a role in determining savings rates. Savings rates are significantly higher for households that do not own their homes or that own few of the standard consumer durables - possibly because, with no retail credit or mortgage markets, households must save to purchase houses and durables. The influence of demographic factors broadly matches earlier findings for developing countries. Perhaps surprisingly, variables associated with the household's position in the transition process - including either sector of employment (public or private) or form of employment - do not play a significant role in determining savings rates. This paper - a product of the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Sector Unit, Europe and Central Asia Region - is part of a larger effort in the region to understand determinants of savings, at both the household and the aggregate level.

Bank --- Consumer --- Debt Markets --- Earnings --- Economic Theory and Research --- Emerging Markets --- Finance and Financial Sector Development --- Financial Literacy --- Future Income --- Household Expenditure --- Household Savings --- Income --- Incomes --- Lifetime --- Macroeconomics and Economic Growth --- Market Economies --- Poverty Reduction --- Precautionary Savings --- Private Sector Development --- Productivity --- Purchases --- Rapid Growth --- Retail Cred Savings Behavior --- Rural Development --- Rural Poverty Reduction --- Savings Rates --- Social Welfare --- Unemployment --- Wages

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Water and sanitation utilities in Africa operate in a high-cost environment. They also have a mandate to at least partially recover their costs of operations and maintenance (O&M). As a result, water tariffs are higher than in other regions of the world. The increasing block tariff (IBT) is the most common tariff structure in Africa. Most African utilities are able to achieve O&M cost recovery at the highest block tariffs, but not at the first-block tariffs, which are designed to provide affordable water to low-volume consumers, who are often poor. At the same time, few utilities can recover even a small part of their capital costs, even in the highest tariff blocks. Unfortunately, the equity objectives of the IBT structure are not met in many countries. The subsidy to the lowest tariff-block does not benefit the poor exclusively, and the minimum consumption charge is often burdensome for the poorest customers. Many poor households cannot even afford a connection to the piped water network. This can be a significant barrier to expansion for utilities. Therefore, many countries have begun to subsidize household connections. For many households, standposts managed by utilities, donors, or private operators have emerged as an alternative to piped water. Those managed by utilities or that supply utility water are expected to use the formal utility tariffs, which are kept low to make water affordable for low-income households. The price for water that is resold through informal channels, however, is much more expensive than piped water.

Affordable water --- Consumption charge --- Cost recovery --- Energy --- Energy Production and Transportation --- Household connections --- Households --- Infrastructure Economics --- Infrastructure Economics and Finance --- Low-income households --- Private operators --- Sanitation utilities --- Service providers --- Sewerage authority --- Sewerage corporation --- Tariff structure --- Town Water Supply and Sanitation --- Urban water --- Urban Water Supply and Sanitation --- Utilities --- Water board --- Water company --- Water consumption --- Water Supply and Sanitation --- Water Supply and Systems --- Water tariff --- Water tariffs --- Water utilities

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Water and sanitation utilities in Africa operate in a high-cost environment. They also have a mandate to at least partially recover their costs of operations and maintenance (O&M). As a result, water tariffs are higher than in other regions of the world. The increasing block tariff (IBT) is the most common tariff structure in Africa. Most African utilities are able to achieve O&M cost recovery at the highest block tariffs, but not at the first-block tariffs, which are designed to provide affordable water to low-volume consumers, who are often poor. At the same time, few utilities can recover even a small part of their capital costs, even in the highest tariff blocks. Unfortunately, the equity objectives of the IBT structure are not met in many countries. The subsidy to the lowest tariff-block does not benefit the poor exclusively, and the minimum consumption charge is often burdensome for the poorest customers. Many poor households cannot even afford a connection to the piped water network. This can be a significant barrier to expansion for utilities. Therefore, many countries have begun to subsidize household connections. For many households, standposts managed by utilities, donors, or private operators have emerged as an alternative to piped water. Those managed by utilities or that supply utility water are expected to use the formal utility tariffs, which are kept low to make water affordable for low-income households. The price for water that is resold through informal channels, however, is much more expensive than piped water.

Affordable water --- Consumption charge --- Cost recovery --- Energy --- Energy Production and Transportation --- Household connections --- Households --- Infrastructure Economics --- Infrastructure Economics and Finance --- Low-income households --- Private operators --- Sanitation utilities --- Service providers --- Sewerage authority --- Sewerage corporation --- Tariff structure --- Town Water Supply and Sanitation --- Urban water --- Urban Water Supply and Sanitation --- Utilities --- Water board --- Water company --- Water consumption --- Water Supply and Sanitation --- Water Supply and Systems --- Water tariff --- Water tariffs --- Water utilities