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Dissertation
Experimental investigation of heat transfer phenomena around an array of thin discs

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Deze thesis presenteert een experimenteel onderzoek naar warmteoverdracht door geforceerde convectie over een reeks van dunne schijven. Het doel is om verschillende parameters te onderzoeken die invloed hebben op de warmteoverdracht over een reeks dunne schijven waarbij de as van de schijf parallel met de stroomrichting is geplaatst in de windtunnel. Door de jaren heen zijn er veel onderzoeken gedaan naar warmteoverdracht over verschillende vormen zoals bollen, cilinders en platte platen. Nochtans ontbreekt er een belangrijke geometrie die in veel industriële toepassingen nodig is, namelijk cirkelvormige schijven. De opstelling bestond uit een windtunnel in connectie met een ventilator, doorheen het testkanaal werd de luchtstroom gemeten met een anemometer. De schijven werden verwarmd met verwarmingsmatten, waarvan de temperatuur gemeten werd door het gebruik van thermokoppels. In totaal werden vier verschillende opstellingsconfiguraties onderzocht. Eén daarvan werd gedaan zonder verwarming om de luchtstroomweerstand te vinden. De schijfdiameter en de dikte worden beschouwd als belangrijke parameters om de luchtstroomweerstand te beïnvloeden. De experimentele resultaten tonen aan dat de drukval, die optreedt als gevolg van de luchtstroomweerstand, hoger is bij een snellere luchtstroomsnelheid. Vervolgens toont het aan dat de drukval vooral wordt beïnvloed door de diameter en minder door de dikte. De verwarmingstesten werden uitgevoerd in drie verschillende configuraties en voor verschillende luchtstroomsnelheden. Eerst door het plaatsen van de drie thermokoppels op het aluminium oppervlak van de schijven. Uit de resultaten van deze test kon de temperatuurverdeling van de schijven worden afgeleid, wat invloed had op de volgende proefopstellingen. Bij de twee volgende opstellingen worden de thermokoppels in het midden van de schijven geplaatst. In de tweede proefopstelling werden de thermokoppels direct op het oppervlak geplaatst, met de warmtematten in de boven- en benedenwindse richting. In deze testopstelling werd de invloed van de richting van de warmtematten waargenomen op de warmteoverdrachtscoëfficiënt. Gevolgd door de derde proef waarbij de tweede configuratie opnieuw gedaan is met extra thermokoppels in het midden rechtstreeks geplaatst op de verwarmingsmat van elke schijf. Er kon geconcludeerd worden dat beide parameters in de laatste twee testen invloed hadden op de warmteoverdrachtscoëfficiënt waarbij de gemeten temperatuur van het thermokoppel geplaats naar de windrichting toe, steeds de laagste waarden had. Uit de resultaten van het experimenteel onderzoek van de verschillende configuraties in dit proefschrift worden vergelijkbare dimensieloze correlaties gevonden met de theoretische correlaties over cirkelvormige cilinders in kruisstroom. Door de experimenteel bepaalde Nusselt nummers te vergelijken met een vergelijkbare studie waarbij geforceerde convectie plaatsvond over een enkele schijf waarvan de schijf-as parallel geplaatst ten opzichten van de luchtstroom, werd geconcludeerd dat de Nusselt nummers over een reeks schijven die bepaald werden in dit onderzoek hoger lagen. Trefwoorden: dunne schijven, empirische correlaties, experimenteel onderzoek, geforceerde convectie, warmteoverdrachtscoëfficiënt

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Dissertation
Experimental investigation of drying kinetics within a novel solar powered dehydrator

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In a lot of places and circumstances it is not possible to keep food for a long time. Drying is a process used for the preservation of food so people can store it for a longer time. A lot of drying processes use industrial ovens but in places where there is no easy access to electricity, it is not evident to install those setups. Solar drying is a perfect technology that is easy to apply for that kind of situations. When drying agricultural products with the solar drying technology, a solar dryer is used. There are different kinds of solar dryers. The simplest and the most used are indirect and direct solar dryers. In this study, there is worked with an indirect solar dryer. Indirect solar dryers use solar radiation to heat up a fluid, in this case air that is transported to a drying chamber were the agricultural products are dried. The agricultural product used in this research is sweet potato from Ethiopia. The sweet potatoes are cut into slices. With the experiments in this study the performance of the solar dryer and the drying kinetics of a sweet potato are researched. The goal is to simulate a real life situation with multiple samples in the drying chamber. With real life situation is meant no preheating of the oven, resulting in no constant temperature. For the performance of the solar dryer the efficiency of the heat transfer from the sun to the air in the solar collector and the drying efficiency is calculated. The drying kinetics are examined by changing different parameters. The parameters are airflow speed, slice thickness and diameter. Thicknesses of 2, 4, and 6 mm are investigated, the diameters investigated were 4 and 5 cm and the airflow rates were 0.99, 4.48 and 8.44 m/s. One batch of slices was divided in different rows, so maybe a difference in the drying process between the different rows could be seen. The conclusion was that every row had the same development. Most of the experiments are done with 9 rows of 9 slices. With a higher airflow speed the temperature of the air is lower and the drying time increases. When changing the thickness en diameter the conclusion is the same, the higher the diameter or the thickness the longer the drying time. Also the flow and temperature distribution in the dryer is investigated.

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Dissertation
Experimental analysis and macro-scale numerical modeling of a novel solar powered food dehydrator
Authors: --- --- --- ---
Year: 2022 Publisher: Leuven KU Leuven. Faculty of Engineering Technology

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Agriculture in Ethiopia is the mainstay of livelihood and foundation of the country's economy. It accounts for 45% of the GDP, 86% of the total foreign exchange earnings, 85% employment and 70% of the raw material requirements for local industries . However, the performance of the agricultural sector has remained weak and heavily influenced by climatic conditions and traditional systems. Studies have shown that Ethiopia is one of the countries heavily impacted by post-harvest losses . Too much of the harvested food is lost by spoilage and infestations on its journey to the consumer. Estimates suggest postharvest losses account up to 30% and the Ministry of Agriculture is striving to minimize losses which are occurring during harvesting, handling, storage, processing, packaging, transportation and marketing. The losses vary according to factors such as the perishability of the commodity, ambient temperature and relative humidity (which affects natural decay as well as fungal and bacterial growth), damage by pests, insects, rodents and birds, the time interval between harvesting and consumption and practices of postharvest handling, storage and processing. This figure is tremendous for a country in which majority of the population is suffering from food insecurity. Hence, food security in Ethiopia is literally a matter of life and death. One of the strategies to increase agricultural production is to minimize postharvest losses. Post-harvest treatment technologies, and more specific drying processes, are of paramount importance as agricultural production is increased and food is transported to areas where it is scarce. Currently, the existing post-harvest processes using solar energy are far from optimized and much needs to be done to increase the efficiency and capacity of these existing small scale installations. Therefore, newly designed solar drying concepts using appropriate farm and village level post-harvest technologies using locally available construction materials, involving building designs and introducing low scale agro-processing technologies will solve the problem of the farming society by reflecting social and cultural traditions. With this, post-harvest losses are minimized and improved nutritional values and an increase in shelf life of agricultural products will improve food security, increase income generation, and achieve sustainable livelihood. To address the needs for good post-harvesting treatment of crops and to improve existing drying installations, the main topic of this PhD is the development of a sustainable drying process to minimize post-harvest losses of several crops, including amongst others potatoes, corn… As the farms in Ethiopia are usually solitaire and far away from public utilities and since there is plenty of sun in the country, the main energy source of the dryer will be solar energy. However, the choice of solar energy brings a lot of difficulties in the design of the drying technology. Challenges like energy storage during the night, the need to use indirect sunlight, the choice of solar panels or boilers … needs to be carefully addressed during the PhD. The PhD will include the following sub-objectives: &bull; Development and validation of a CFD model that can predict the air flow distribution within the drying chamber, as well as the time evolution of the temperature inside. &bull; Applying the developed CFD model in the design of new solar food drier concepts with different inlet configurations and evaluation of the effect of inlet configurations in order to select the most appropriate design configuration. &bull; Development and validation of a lumped capacitance model to model heat and mass transfer of the drying process to replace the need for computational expensive CFD calculations in the design of solar dryers.

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Dissertation
Experimental investigation of drying kinetics within a novel solar powered dehydrator

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Abstract

In a lot of places and circumstances it is not possible to keep food for a long time. Drying is a process used for the preservation of food so people can store it for a longer time. A lot of drying processes use industrial ovens but in places where there is no easy access to electricity, it is not evident to install those setups. Solar drying is a perfect technology that is easy to apply for that kind of situations. When drying agricultural products with the solar drying technology, a solar dryer is used. There are different kinds of solar dryers. The simplest and the most used are indirect and direct solar dryers. In this study, there is worked with an indirect solar dryer. Indirect solar dryers use solar radiation to heat up a fluid, in this case air that is transported to a drying chamber were the agricultural products are dried. The agricultural product used in this research is sweet potato from Ethiopia. The sweet potatoes are cut into slices. With the experiments in this study the performance of the solar dryer and the drying kinetics of a sweet potato are researched. The goal is to simulate a real life situation with multiple samples in the drying chamber. With real life situation is meant no preheating of the oven, resulting in no constant temperature. For the performance of the solar dryer the efficiency of the heat transfer from the sun to the air in the solar collector and the drying efficiency is calculated. The drying kinetics are examined by changing different parameters. The parameters are airflow speed, slice thickness and diameter. Thicknesses of 2, 4, and 6 mm are investigated, the diameters investigated were 4 and 5 cm and the airflow rates were 0.99, 4.48 and 8.44 m/s. One batch of slices was divided in different rows, so maybe a difference in the drying process between the different rows could be seen. The conclusion was that every row had the same development. Most of the experiments are done with 9 rows of 9 slices. With a higher airflow speed the temperature of the air is lower and the drying time increases. When changing the thickness en diameter the conclusion is the same, the higher the diameter or the thickness the longer the drying time. Also the flow and temperature distribution in the dryer is investigated.

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Dissertation
Computer aided modelling of the melting of chocolate

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Chocolade is een lekkernij waar velen van houden. Zowel op ambachtelijke als op industriële schaal zijn er vele stappen nodig om deze delicatesse te produceren. Het smelten van dit product is een langzaam en complex proces, voor aanzienlijke hoeveelheden kan het tot enkele uren duren. Chocolade bestaat namelijk in verschillende varianten met elk hun unieke combinatie van temperatuursgevoelige ingrediënten. Oververhitting kan ervoor zorgen dat de chocolade sterk visceus en klonterig wordt en de suikerpartikels kunnen karameliseren wat zijn kwaliteit zal doen dalen. Het is echter belangrijk om de chocolade zo snel mogelijk te smelten zonder de smaak en de structuur in gevaar te brengen. Door de beperkte informatie over het smelten van chocolade, was de methodologie om het smeltproces te verbeteren in het verleden vooral gebaseerd op kennis verworven uit empirische waarnemingen. Via experimenten waarin de parameters die de smeltcyclus beïnvloeden gewijzigd worden, kan men hun invloed onderzoeken en optimaliseren. Op industriële schaal verbruikt deze trail-and-error-methode veel hulpmiddelen, zoals tijd en geld. Het ontwikkelen van een computer gebaseerd wiskundig model voor het smeltgedrag van chocolade, biedt een snellere en goedkopere methode aan om dit gedrag te simuleren en de invloeden van mogelijke parameterveranderingen te benaderen. In deze thesis wordt een computer gebaseerd model, ontwikkeld in MATLAB, voorgesteld. Het model maakt gebruik van twee numerieke methoden: de eindige differentie methode (FDM) en de eindige elementen methode (FEM) om de werkelijke smelttijden te benaderen. De beschikbare informatie over de thermische eigenschappen van chocolade en andere materialen, waaruit de smeltketel met watermantel bestaat, werd verzameld. Ook een goede kennis van de thermodynamische wetten, de smeltkinetiek en de mechanismen van warmteoverdracht die optreden bij het smelten van chocolade is primordiaal. Daarnaast wordt ook de verschuivende smeltfront stelling, of het Stefanprobleem, onderzocht om het bewegende smeltende front in de chocolademassa in beeld te brengen. Door het oplossen van de transiënte warmteoverdrachtvergelijkingen in de context van conductie, zijn de temperatuurgradiënten op elke locatie en tijdstap bepaald. Door het gebruik van twee verschillende numerieke methoden zijn twee modellen van de bestaande installatie ontwikkeld. Het eerste model, het FDM model, zal op punt staan na validatie. Het tweede model, het FEM model, bevindt zich nog in een vroeger stadium en kan verder ontwikkeld worden.

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Dissertation
Thermal Wiper Blade, Determination of Effect of Wiper Blade Heating on Wiping Performance

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Wiper blade wiping performance has been reported to be compromised at low ambient temperatures, degrading the driver’s visibility and increasing the risk of accident. This paper investigated whether low ambient temperatures have a negative effect on wiping performance and if this negative effect can be reversed by heating the rubber element. Two experiments were conducted in which three wiping performance indicators were investigated at low ambient temperatures with and without heating. Low ambient temperatures proved to affect the wiping performance negatively while heating the rubber element reduced the negative effects. Additionally, a one-dimensional and a two-dimensional model were developed on MATLAB to investigate the temperature development in the rubber element. The results of these models were compared to the results of the corresponding two-dimensional simulation in ANSYS Fluent. The average temperature in the MATLAB models and the ANSYS Fluent simulation evolved to the same steady state temperature value. The difference in time required for reaching thermal steady state between the one-dimensional and the two-dimensional model was interpreted. The heat flow in a heated wiper blade was approximated through a second model. The insight gained from the experiment results and the model results were used in the concept development phase where the heating methods were overviewed and concepts for future wiper blade products were proposed. The most advantageous heating method proved to be heating the wiper blade vertebrae, yet other proposed heating methods could show promising potential if researched in a greater extent. Two heated prototypes were fabricated where the vertebrae were heated by resistive heating elements. These prototypes were used in experimentation. The wiper blade concept design phase resulted in some proposed concepts for future wiper blade products which focus on thermally insulating the wiper blade from the ambient air and maximizing the heat flow to the rubber element.

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Dissertation
DESIGN AND CFD MODELING OF SOLAR SWEET POTATO DRYING MACHINE

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This paper presents the design and CFD simulation of solar sweet potato drying machine using standard k-ε turbulence model. The dryer removes moisture from the product by circulating a heated air through the drying chamber which is heated by a solar collector prior to entering. A transient 2D axisymmetric CFD simulation is made to predict the temperature and air flow distribution in the drying chamber. A mean temperature rise of 30℃ is obtained in the sweet potato. Different design concepts brought are considered and better performance is observed from the design with curved inlet guide implement. The comparison between the CFD model and the lumped capacitance model showed that the latter can predict the required warm up period and the corresponding temperature rise quite accurately. The CFD model though computationally demanding have a very important predicting capability of the detail transient temperature time evolution.

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Dissertation
Designing a multi-zonal model to simulate and evaluate the control function of Thermostatic Radiator Valves

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The Thermostatic radiator valve (TRV) regulates the room temperature by comparing the measured room temperature with the setpoint room temperature, and adjusting the water flow rate through the radiator accordingly. An increase in the temperature of the supply water of the radiator can improve the efficiency of the overall heating system. The functionality of the TRV is not dealt with extensively when the inlet water temperature to the radiator is increased. In this thesis, the impact of the increased supply water temperature on the control function of the TRV is studied by developing a multi-zonal state-space model of a room with the heating system, based on previous simulations of space heating systems in buildings. The model simulates the transient temperature of three different air zones within a room and a water flow rate controlled by the TRV, taking into account different heat gains in the room. This allows the study of the capability of the TRV to decrease overheating, when using an increased supply water temperature under different conditions. The modeled rooms have a low heat demand, as the biggest degree of overheating is expected under this condition. The results state that the accumulative overheating degree of the room increases when using excessive water temperatures, but the automatic adjustment effectiveness of the TRV to the temperature increase of the supply water is above 90%. However, the control functionality of the TRV should be adjusted as the overheating degree of a room with low heat demand is high when using both standard and increased supply water temperatures. In addition, when initially activating the heating system an overshoot in room temperature occurs. This overshoot increases significantly when using overheated supply water. Furthermore, the TRV determines a fluctuating flow rate when the heat demand of the room is low, causing oscillations in the room temperature. The magnitude of the oscillations becomes larger when increasing the supply water temperature. This reduces the comfort level, causes redundant wear on the valve and increases the energy cost. A controller is suggested to improve the effectiveness of the TRV in reducing overheating in the room, and to remove the flow rate and temperature oscillations when the heat demand of the room is low. The suggested linear quadratic optimal control method removes the initial room temperature overshoot and the temperature and flow rate oscillations. The resulting full-state feedback controller however should be able to adapt its gain matrix to the changing operating point of the TRV, and the controller should be tuned distinctly for all the operating ranges in which the valve can function. Otherwise, a steady-state error between the setpoint room temperature and the simulated room temperature appears when the operating point shifts. Gain scheduling control is proposed to avoid this steady-state error. Mechanical adjustments to the valve can also enhance the control function of the TRV. Keywords: control effectiveness, overheating, simulation, supply water, TRV

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Dissertation
Experimental investigation of heat transfer phenomena around an array of thin discs

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Deze thesis presenteert een experimenteel onderzoek naar warmteoverdracht door geforceerde convectie over een reeks van dunne schijven. Het doel is om verschillende parameters te onderzoeken die invloed hebben op de warmteoverdracht over een reeks dunne schijven waarbij de as van de schijf parallel met de stroomrichting is geplaatst in de windtunnel. Door de jaren heen zijn er veel onderzoeken gedaan naar warmteoverdracht over verschillende vormen zoals bollen, cilinders en platte platen. Nochtans ontbreekt er een belangrijke geometrie die in veel industriële toepassingen nodig is, namelijk cirkelvormige schijven. De opstelling bestond uit een windtunnel in connectie met een ventilator, doorheen het testkanaal werd de luchtstroom gemeten met een anemometer. De schijven werden verwarmd met verwarmingsmatten, waarvan de temperatuur gemeten werd door het gebruik van thermokoppels. In totaal werden vier verschillende opstellingsconfiguraties onderzocht. Eén daarvan werd gedaan zonder verwarming om de luchtstroomweerstand te vinden. De schijfdiameter en de dikte worden beschouwd als belangrijke parameters die de luchtstroomweerstand beïnvloeden. De experimentele resultaten tonen aan dat de drukval, die optreedt als gevolg van de luchtstroomweerstand, hoger is bij een snellere luchtstroomsnelheid. Vervolgens toont het aan dat de drukval vooral wordt beïnvloed door de diameter en minder door de dikte van de schrijven. De verwarmingstesten werden uitgevoerd in drie verschillende configuraties en voor verschillende luchtstroomsnelheden. Eerst door het plaatsen van de drie thermokoppels op het aluminium oppervlak van de schijven. Uit de resultaten van deze test kon de temperatuurverdeling van de schijven worden afgeleid, wat invloed had op de volgende proefopstellingen. Bij de twee volgende opstellingen worden de thermokoppels in het midden van de schijven geplaatst. In de tweede proefopstelling werden de thermokoppels direct op het oppervlak geplaatst, met de warmtematten in de boven- en benedenwindse richting. In deze testopstelling werd de invloed van de richting van de warmtematten waargenomen op de warmteoverdrachtscoëfficiënt. Gevolgd door de derde proef waarbij de tweede configuratie opnieuw gedaan is met extra thermokoppels in het midden rechtstreeks geplaatst op de verwarmingsmat van elke schijf. Er kon geconcludeerd worden dat beide parameters in de laatste twee testen invloed hadden op de warmteoverdrachtscoëfficiënt waarbij de gemeten temperatuur van het thermokoppel geplaatst naar de windrichting toe, steeds de laagste waarden had. Uit de resultaten van het experimenteel onderzoek van de verschillende configuraties in dit proefschrift werden dimensieloze correlaties gevonden die vergelijkbaar zijn met de theoretische correlaties over cirkelvormige cilinders in kruisstroom. Door de experimenteel bepaalde Nusselt nummers te vergelijken met een vergelijkbare studie waarbij geforceerde convectie plaatsvond over een enkele schijf waarvan de schijf-as parallel geplaatst ten opzichten van de luchtstroom, werd geconcludeerd dat de Nusselt nummers over een reeks schijven die bepaald werden in dit onderzoek hoger lagen. Trefwoorden: dunne schijven, empirische correlaties, experimenteel onderzoek, geforceerde convectie, warmteoverdrachtscoëfficiënt

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Dissertation
Thermal Wiper Blade-Determination of Effect of Wiper Blade Heating on Wiping Performance

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Abstract

Wiper blade wiping performance has been reported to be compromised at low ambient temperatures, degrading the driver’s visibility and increasing the risk of accidents. This paper investigated whether low ambient temperatures have a negative effect on wiping performance and if this negative effect can be reversed by heating the rubber element. Two experiments were conducted in which three wiping performance indicators were investigated at low ambient temperatures with and without heating. Low ambient temperatures proved to affect the wiping performance negatively while heating the rubber element reduced the negative effects. Additionally, a one-dimensional and a two-dimensional model were developed on MATLAB to investigate the temperature development in the rubber element. The results of these models were compared to the results of the corresponding two-dimensional simulation in ANSYS Fluent. The average temperature in the MATLAB models and the ANSYS Fluent simulation evolved to the same steady state temperature value. The difference in time required for reaching thermal steady state between the one-dimensional and the two-dimensional model was interpreted. The heat flow in a heated wiper blade was approximated through a second model. The insight gained from the experiment results and the model results were used in the concept development phase where the heating methods were overviewed and concepts for future wiper blade products were proposed. The most advantageous heating method proved to be heating the wiper blade vertebrae, yet other proposed heating methods could show promising potential if researched in a greater extent. Two heated prototypes were fabricated where the vertebrae were heated by resistive heating elements. These prototypes were used in experimentation. The wiper blade concept design phase resulted in some proposed concepts for future wiper blade products which focus on thermally insulating the wiper blade from the ambient air and maximizing the heat flow to the rubber element.

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