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The energy transition requires substantial amounts of metals such as copper, nickel, cobaltand lithium. Are these metals a key bottleneck? We identify metal-specific demand shocks,estimate supply elasticities and pin down the price impact of the energy transition in astructural scenario analysis. Metal prices would reach historical peaks for an unprecedented,sustained period in a net-zero emissions scenario. The total value of metals production wouldrise more than four-fold for the period 2021 to 2040, rivaling the total value of crude oilproduction. Metals are a potentially important input into integrated assessments models ofclimate change.
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The energy transition requires substantial amounts of metals such as copper, nickel, cobalt and lithium. Are these metals a key bottleneck? We identify metal-specific demand shocks, estimate supply elasticities and pin down the price impact of the energy transition in a structural scenario analysis. Metal prices would reach historical peaks for an unprecedented, sustained period in a net-zero emissions scenario. The total value of metals production would rise more than four-fold for the period 2021 to 2040, rivaling the total value of crude oil production. Metals are a potentially important input into integrated assessments models of climate change.
Agriculture: Aggregate Supply and Demand Analysis --- Cement --- Ceramics --- Climate change --- Climate --- Climatic changes --- Commodities --- Copper --- Currency crises --- Diffusion Processes --- Dynamic Quantile Regressions --- Dynamic Treatment Effect Models --- Economic & financial crises & disasters --- Economic theory & philosophy --- Economic Theory --- Economic theory --- Economics of specific sectors --- Economics --- Economics: General --- Elasticity --- Energy: General --- Energy: Government Policy --- Environmental Conservation and Protection --- Forecasting and Other Model Applications --- Glass --- Global Warming --- Informal sector --- Investment & securities --- Investments: Energy --- Investments: Metals --- Macroeconomics --- Metal prices --- Metals and Metal Products --- Metals --- Natural Disasters and Their Management --- Nonrenewable Resources and Conservation: General --- Prices --- State Space Models --- Supply elasticity --- Time-Series Models --- Vietnam
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We use structural scenario analysis to show that the climate policy mix—supply-side versus demand-side policies—can lead to different oil price paths with diverging distributional consequences in a netzero emissions scenario. When emission reduction is driven by demand-side policies, prices would decline to around 25 USD per barrel in 2030, benefiting consuming countries. Vice versa, supply-side climate policies aimed at curbing oil production would push up prices to above 130 USD per barrel, benefiting those producing countries that take the political decision to keep on producing. Consequently, it is wrong to assume that oil prices will necessarily decline due to the clean energy transition. As policies are mostly formulated at the country level and hard to predict at the global level, the transition will raise uncertainty about the price outlook.
Climate change --- Climatic changes --- Commodities --- Consumption --- Currency crises --- Economic & financial crises & disasters --- Economic theory & philosophy --- Economic Theory --- Economics of specific sectors --- Economics --- Economics: General --- Energy and the Macroeconomy --- Energy: Demand and Supply --- Energy: General --- Energy: Government Policy --- Environmental Conservation and Protection --- Industries: Energy --- Informal sector --- Investment & securities --- Investments: Energy --- Macroeconomics --- Macroeconomics: Consumption --- Macroeconomics: Production --- National accounts --- Oil consumption --- Oil prices --- Oil production --- Oil --- Petroleum industry and trade --- Petroleum, oil & gas industries --- Prices --- Production --- Saving --- Supply and demand --- Wealth
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We assess the supply-side effects on European Union (EU) economic activity if Russian gas imports were to suddenly cease. Unlike other studies, we account for the global scope of the liquefied natural gas (LNG) market. In the absence of frictions, an open-economy, multi-sector general equilibrium model suggests that the adverse economic impact on the EU shrinks five-fold if integration with the global LNG market is considered. While greater integration provides a buffer for the EU through trade, the flip side is that other LNG importers (such as Japan, South Korea, and Pakistan) see adverse effects from higher prices.
Macroeconomics --- Economics: General --- Industries: Energy --- Economic Theory --- Macroeconomics: Consumption, Saving, Production, Employment, and Investment: General (includes Measurement and Data) --- Prices, Business Fluctuations, and Cycles: General (includes Measurement and Data) --- Energy: General --- Hydrocarbon Resources --- Agriculture: Aggregate Supply and Demand Analysis --- Prices --- Energy: Demand and Supply --- Macroeconomics: Consumption --- Saving --- Wealth --- Economic & financial crises & disasters --- Economics of specific sectors --- Petroleum, oil & gas industries --- Economic theory & philosophy --- Natural gas sector --- Economic sectors --- Supply shocks --- Economic theory --- Demand elasticity --- Fuel prices --- Consumption --- National accounts --- Currency crises --- Informal sector --- Economics --- Gas industry --- Supply and demand --- Elasticity --- Russian Federation
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We provide evidence on the dynamic effects of fuel price shocks, shipping demand shocks, and shipping supply shocks on real dry bulk freight rates in the long run. We first analyze a new dataset on dry bulk freight rates for the period from 1850 to 2020, finding that they followed a downward but undulating path with a cumulative decline of 79%. Next, we turn to understanding the drivers of booms and busts in the dry bulk shipping industry, finding that shipping demand shocks strongly dominate all others as drivers of real dry bulk freight rates in the long run. Furthermore, while shipping demand shocks have increased in importance over time, shipping supply shocks in particular have become less relevant.
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We assess the supply-side effects on European Union (EU) economic activity if Russian gas imports were to suddenly cease. Unlike other studies, we account for the global scope of the liquefied natural gas (LNG) market. In the absence of frictions, an open-economy, multi-sector general equilibrium model suggests that the adverse economic impact on the EU shrinks five-fold if integration with the global LNG market is considered. While greater integration provides a buffer for the EU through trade, the flip side is that other LNG importers (such as Japan, South Korea, and Pakistan) see adverse effects from higher prices.
Russian Federation --- Macroeconomics --- Economics: General --- Industries: Energy --- Economic Theory --- Macroeconomics: Consumption, Saving, Production, Employment, and Investment: General (includes Measurement and Data) --- Prices, Business Fluctuations, and Cycles: General (includes Measurement and Data) --- Energy: General --- Hydrocarbon Resources --- Agriculture: Aggregate Supply and Demand Analysis --- Prices --- Energy: Demand and Supply --- Macroeconomics: Consumption --- Saving --- Wealth --- Economic & financial crises & disasters --- Economics of specific sectors --- Petroleum, oil & gas industries --- Economic theory & philosophy --- Natural gas sector --- Economic sectors --- Supply shocks --- Economic theory --- Demand elasticity --- Fuel prices --- Consumption --- National accounts --- Currency crises --- Informal sector --- Economics --- Gas industry --- Supply and demand --- Elasticity
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Limiting climate change requires a 80 percent reduction in fossil fuel extraction until 2050. What are the macroeconomic consequences for fossil fuel producing countries? We identify 35 episodes of persistent, exogenous declines in extraction based on a new data-set for 13 minerals (oil, gas, coal, metals) and 122 countries since 1950. We use local projections to estimate effects on real output as well as the external and the domestic sectors. Declines in extractive activity lead to persistent negative effects on real GDP and the trade balance. The real exchange rate depreciates but not enough to offset the decline in net exports. Effects on low-income countries are significantly larger than on high-income countries. Results suggest that legacy effects of bad institutions could prevent countries from benefiting from lower resource extraction.
Commercial products --- Commodities --- Commodity Markets --- Consumption --- Currency crises --- Economic & financial crises & disasters --- Economic Development: Agriculture --- Economic sectors --- Economics of specific sectors --- Economics --- Economics: General --- Energy and the Macroeconomy --- Energy --- Environment --- Environmental management --- Exhaustible Resources and Economic Development --- Extractive industries --- Industries: Manufacturing --- Industry Studies: Manufacturing: General --- Industry Studies: Primary Products and Construction: General --- Informal sector --- Investment & securities --- Investments: Commodities --- Macroeconomics --- Macroeconomics: Consumption --- Manufacturing industries --- Manufacturing --- Mineral industries --- Mining sector --- National accounts --- Natural Resource Extraction --- Natural Resources --- Natural resources --- Non-renewable resources --- Nonrenewable Resources and Conservation: General --- Other Primary Products --- Prices, Business Fluctuations, and Cycles: General (includes Measurement and Data) --- Saving --- Wealth
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This paper analyzes the implications of disruptions in Russian gas for Europe’s balances and economic output. Alternative sources could replace up to 70 percent of Russian gas, allowing Europe to avoid shortages during a temporary disruption of around 6 months. However, a longer full shut-off of Russian gas to the whole of Europe would likely interact with infrastructure bottlenecks to produce very high prices and significant shortages in some countries, with parts of Central and Eastern Europe most vulnerable. With natural gas an important input in production, the capacity of the economy would shrink. Our findings suggest that in the short term, the most vulnerable countries in Central and Eastern Europe — Hungary, Slovak Republic and Czechia — face a risk of shortages of as much as 40 percent of gas consumption and of gross domestic product shrinking by up to 6 percent. The effects on Austria, Germany and Italy would also be significant, but would depend on the exact nature of remaining bottlenecks at the time of the shutoff and consequently the ability of the market to adjust. Many other countries are unlikely to face such constraints and the impact on GDP would be moderate—possibly under 1 percent. Immediate policy priorities center on actions to mitigate impacts, including to eliminate constraints to a more integrated gas market via easing infrastructure bottlenecks, to accelerate efforts in defining and agreeing solidarity contributions, and to promote stronger pricing pass through and other measures to generate greater energy savings. National responses and RePowerEU contains many important measures to help address these challenges, but immediate coordinated action is called for, with specific opportunities in each of these areas.
Macroeconomics --- Economics: General --- Industries: Energy --- Exports and Imports --- Economic Theory --- Banks and Banking --- Macroeconomics: Production --- International Conflicts --- Negotiations --- Sanctions --- Mining, Extraction, and Refining: Hydrocarbon Fuels --- Gas Utilities --- Pipelines --- Water Utilities --- Commodity Markets --- Energy: Demand and Supply --- Prices --- Hydrocarbon Resources --- Trade: General --- Macroeconomics: Consumption --- Saving --- Wealth --- Agriculture: Aggregate Supply and Demand Analysis --- Financing Policy --- Financial Risk and Risk Management --- Capital and Ownership Structure --- Value of Firms --- Goodwill --- Economic & financial crises & disasters --- Economics of specific sectors --- Petroleum, oil & gas industries --- International economics --- Economic theory & philosophy --- Financial services law & regulation --- Natural gas sector --- Economic sectors --- Imports --- International trade --- Consumption --- National accounts --- Supply shocks --- Economic theory --- Operational risk --- Financial regulation and supervision --- Currency crises --- Informal sector --- Economics --- Gas industry --- Supply and demand --- Financial risk management --- Germany
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This paper analyzes the implications of disruptions in Russian gas for Europe’s balances and economic output. Alternative sources could replace up to 70 percent of Russian gas, allowing Europe to avoid shortages during a temporary disruption of around 6 months. However, a longer full shut-off of Russian gas to the whole of Europe would likely interact with infrastructure bottlenecks to produce very high prices and significant shortages in some countries, with parts of Central and Eastern Europe most vulnerable. With natural gas an important input in production, the capacity of the economy would shrink. Our findings suggest that in the short term, the most vulnerable countries in Central and Eastern Europe — Hungary, Slovak Republic and Czechia — face a risk of shortages of as much as 40 percent of gas consumption and of gross domestic product shrinking by up to 6 percent. The effects on Austria, Germany and Italy would also be significant, but would depend on the exact nature of remaining bottlenecks at the time of the shutoff and consequently the ability of the market to adjust. Many other countries are unlikely to face such constraints and the impact on GDP would be moderate—possibly under 1 percent. Immediate policy priorities center on actions to mitigate impacts, including to eliminate constraints to a more integrated gas market via easing infrastructure bottlenecks, to accelerate efforts in defining and agreeing solidarity contributions, and to promote stronger pricing pass through and other measures to generate greater energy savings. National responses and RePowerEU contains many important measures to help address these challenges, but immediate coordinated action is called for, with specific opportunities in each of these areas.
Germany --- Macroeconomics --- Economics: General --- Industries: Energy --- Exports and Imports --- Economic Theory --- Banks and Banking --- Macroeconomics: Production --- International Conflicts --- Negotiations --- Sanctions --- Mining, Extraction, and Refining: Hydrocarbon Fuels --- Gas Utilities --- Pipelines --- Water Utilities --- Commodity Markets --- Energy: Demand and Supply --- Prices --- Hydrocarbon Resources --- Trade: General --- Macroeconomics: Consumption --- Saving --- Wealth --- Agriculture: Aggregate Supply and Demand Analysis --- Financing Policy --- Financial Risk and Risk Management --- Capital and Ownership Structure --- Value of Firms --- Goodwill --- Economic & financial crises & disasters --- Economics of specific sectors --- Petroleum, oil & gas industries --- International economics --- Economic theory & philosophy --- Financial services law & regulation --- Natural gas sector --- Economic sectors --- Imports --- International trade --- Consumption --- National accounts --- Supply shocks --- Economic theory --- Operational risk --- Financial regulation and supervision --- Currency crises --- Informal sector --- Economics --- Gas industry --- Supply and demand --- Financial risk management
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This paper studies the economic impact of fragmentation of commodity trade. We assemble a novel dataset of production and bilateral trade flows of the 48 most important energy, mineral and agricultural commodities. We develop a partial equilibrium framework to assess which commodity markets are most vulnerable in the event of trade disruptions and the economic risks that they pose. We find that commodity trade fragmentation – which has accelerated since Russia’s invasion of Ukraine – could cause large price changes and price volatility for many commodities. Mineral markets critical for the clean energy transition and selected agricultural commodity markets appear among the most vulnerable in the hypothetical segmentation of the world into two geopolitical blocs examined in the paper. Trade disruptions result in heterogeneous impacts on economic surplus across countries. However, due to offsetting effects across commodity producing and consuming countries, surplus losses appear modest at the global level.
Agricultural commodities --- Agriculture in International Trade --- Agriculture: General --- Balance of trade --- Commercial products --- Commodities --- Commodity exchanges --- Commodity Markets --- Commodity markets --- Commodity price fluctuations --- Currency crises --- Deflation --- E-Commerce --- Economic & financial crises & disasters --- Economic Growth of Open Economies --- Economic Integration --- Economics of specific sectors --- Economics --- Economics: General --- Empirical Studies of Trade --- Energy and the Macroeconomy --- Exports and Imports --- Farm produce --- Finance --- Finance: General --- Financial markets --- General Financial Markets: General (includes Measurement and Data) --- Inflation --- Informal sector --- International economics --- International Policy Coordination and Transmission --- Investment & securities --- Investments: Commodities --- Macroeconomics --- Models of Trade with Imperfect Competition and Scale Economies --- Neoclassical Models of Trade --- Nonrenewable Resources and Conservation: General --- Open Economy Macroeconomics --- Price Level --- Prices --- Renewable Resources and Conservation: Issues in International Trade --- Retail and Wholesale Trade --- Trade: Forecasting and Simulation
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