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Exports --- Industrial productivity --- International business enterprises --- Wages --- 339.8 --- 658.1 --- Indonesië --- Thailand --- Compensation --- Departmental salaries --- Earnings --- Pay --- Remuneration --- Salaries --- Wage-fund --- Wage rates --- Working class --- Income --- Labor costs --- Compensation management --- Cost and standard of living --- Prices --- Business enterprises, International --- Corporations, International --- Global corporations --- International corporations --- MNEs (International business enterprises) --- Multinational corporations --- Multinational enterprises --- Transnational corporations --- Business enterprises --- Corporations --- Joint ventures --- Productivity, Industrial --- TFP (Total factor productivity) --- Total factor productivity --- Industrial efficiency --- Production (Economic theory) --- International trade --- Internationaal management --- Ondernemingsvormen --- International economic relations --- Firms and enterprises --- Indonesia

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International finance --- Hong Kong --- Singapore

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After a brief introduction and examination of the economic rationale for accounting for foreign direct investment (FDI), we survey information on outward investors from Hong Kong and Singapore with the aim of illuminating the implications of accounting for such FDI by geographical source or by country of ultimate beneficial owner. By any measure it is clear that a large part of FDI from these economies comes from foreign-controlled firms and hence that ownership-based estimates of FDI from these two economies would be much smaller than the standard, geography-based estimates. However, because outward investment by foreign firms in Hong Kong and Singapore often involves sub- stantial contributions from local staff and partners, an attempt is made to examine the extent of control over investment decisions exercised by these local staff and partners. Case studies from Hong Kong indicate a tendency for for local control over investment decisions to be relatively strong in 4 types of foreign-controlled Hong Kong firms, recently acquired firms, firms with strong local entrepreneurial involvement, customer-oriented firms, and relocated holding companies. On the other hand, evidence froma sample of Thai affiliates of foreign-controlled Hong Kong or Singapore investors suggested that many of the investors were acting as part of an integrated network of foreign investors. Thus, although it is clear local staff and partners have a large influence over the investment decisions of foreign-controlled outward investors in Hong Kong and Singapore, it does not appear that such firms are a majority among foreign-controlled investors in these economies.

Investments, Foreign

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This study examines the relationship between Japan's manufactured exports to individual markets and the economic activities of foreign manufacturing affiliates of Japanese multinational corporations (MNCs) and U.S. MNCs in those markets. First, the relationships between Japanese export levels and employment in foreign affiliates of Japanese MNCs are analyzed in the context of a typical gravity model explaining the cross-country variation of Japan's manufacturing exports. Second, the paper examines the effects of the presence of affiliates of U.S. MNCs on Japanese export levels. And third, it analyzes the relation of changes in Japanese exports to levels of and changes in employment in Japanese and U.S. MNC affiliates. The level of Japan's manufactured exports to a country is almost always positively related to employment in foreign manufacturing affiliates of Japanese MNCs there. There is no evidence that Japanese-owned host country production replaces Japanese exports. However, production by U.S. MNC affiliates in a country often tends to reduce Japanese exports to that market. In some industries and periods, the initial level of Japanese affiliate employment, or changes in Japanese affiliate employment, are positively and significantly correlated with changes in Japan's exports, and there are no cases of significant negative relationships. The predominant effect of U.S. affiliates' presence on changes in Japanese exports to a country is negative, but the evidence for that effect is not strong.

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Economics