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Wheat is a key staple food in Afghanistan, accounting for over half the caloric intake of the population. Although Afghanistan imports wheat and flour from a number of neighboring countries, Pakistan tends to supply more than half of these imports. Afghanistan's food supply network broke down in 2008 due to a confluence of events, including shortfalls in Pakistani and Afghan wheat production and Pakistan's bans on wheat and flour exports. Substantial price hikes were needed to bring increased flour shipments from Kazakhstan through the inefficient transport system from the North. Afghanistan will remain subject to supply disruptions and price spikes as long as its agricultural production remains highly variable and weak transportation links limit the country's ability to diversify its sources of imported grain. Improvements in infrastructure could enable Afghanistan to diversify its wheat and flour imports and bring in supplies at a lower cost.

Afghan War, 2001-2021 --- Food supply --- Agriculture --- Grain trade --- Futures market --- Economic aspects.

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Tobacco industry --- Economic development --- Malawi --- Economic conditions.

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High tariff and nontariff protection of the Indian oilseed sector imposes costs on consumers, supports an inefficient processing industry, and has led to negligible gains in oilseed output. Model-based simulations indicate that higher levels of protection would increase the burden on consumers, but do little to meet key policy goals of supporting producers and reducing import dependence. A shift to direct support of oilseed producer prices would increase output, but may be complex to implement and subject to WTO discipline. Liberalization of oilseed imports, by permitting large gains in processing efficiency, could generate a stream of benefits that would allow producers, consumers, and processors to be better off, and also improve the trade balance.

Oil industries --- Oilseed plants --- Agriculture and state --- Free trade --- Processing

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Tobacco industry --- Economic development --- Malawi --- Economic conditions.