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Indians of North America --- Inuit --- Indiens d'Amérique --- Inuits --- Culture matérielle --- Moeurs et coutumes. --- Moeurs et coutumes --- Indiens d'Amérique

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De la Margeride à la Cerdagne, du Pays de Sault aux Cévennes, le Languedoc-Roussillon est riche de plus de 900 000 hectares de forêts, produisant chaque année 700 000 mètres cubes de bois brut. Qu'elles soient de valeur inégale, souvent peu denses, fragiles, vulnérables au feu, personne n'en disconvient. Cependant, elles sont liées étroitement à l'histoire des communautés rurales et urbaines de la région. Bien sûr, les usagers de nos forêts n'en ont fait qu'à leur tête. Les verriers, les maîtres de forges, mais aussi les charpentiers de marine, les négociants de bois de feu, les sabotiers, les fabricants de peignes de buis, toute une multitude d'usagers ont puisé parfois anarchiquement dans une ressource limitée. Esquisser l'histoire des rapports hommes-forêt, c'est recenser ces usages avec leurs outrances, leur méconnaissance parfois des règles sylvicoles, c'est relire les procès-verbaux de délits, c'est mettre en lumière les luttes des communautés villageoises pour obtenir des droits d'usage dans les bois de la souveraineté, c'est tenter de comprendre ce lien un peu mystérieux qui nous ramène à la forêt. Toujours, elle nous sert de repère, elle cristallise nos rêves de nature. Elle grandit au fil du temps. Elle ne doit pas mourir puisqu'elle fait partie de ce patrimoine que nous devons sauvegarder afin de mieux le transmettre.

History --- forêt --- Languedoc-Roussillon --- nature

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May 2000 - Because of the trend toward decentralization in more than 70 countries where the World Bank is active, subnational entities - states, regions, provinces, counties, and municipalities, and the local utility companies owned by them - are now responsible for delivering services and investing in infrastructure. And infrastructure investments are growing rapidly to meet increasing urban demand. How should the World Bank Group help? Subnational debt markets can be a powerful force in a country's development. Through delegated monitoring by financial intermediaries and through debt placed directly with investors, sub-national debt markets account for about 5 percent of GDP in Argentina and Brazil. But they remain embryonic in most developing and transition economies. To resolve a potential clash between the increased financing needs of subnational entities and the limited development of domestic subnational debt markets, it is critical to support the orderly, efficient emergence of such debt markets. As a framework for policy reform, the following steps (mirroring typical weaknesses) are prerequisites for developing a country's subnational debt market: Reducing moral hazard; Improving market transparency; Strengthening market governance; Establishing a level playing field; Developing local capacity for accounting, budgeting, and financial management. In countries where the government shows a clear commitment to market development, says Noel, the IBRD should support the framework needed for policy-based operations that establish hard budget constraints. In doing so, the IBRD should concentrate on (1) supporting national and local capacity building in those areas essential for developing a subnational debt market and (2) financing specific subnational projects with strictly nonrecourse loans. At the same time, the World Bank Group should offer a variety of lending and guarantee instruments that encourage private financing for investments by subnational entities - including, for example, equity participation in (or lines of credit or partial credit guarantees to) financial intermediaries specializing in subnational investment finance or in funds for financing local infrastructure. This paper - a product of the Private and Financial Sectors Development Unit, Europe and Central Asia Region - was prepared as background for a manual on policy issues relating to domestic debt markets. Michel Noel may be contacted at mnoel2@worldbank.org.

Agency Problems --- Bond Market Players --- Debt Market --- Debt Markets --- Decentralization --- Domestic Bond --- Domestic Bond Market --- Domestic Debt --- Domestic Debt Markets --- Finance --- Finance and Financial Sector Development --- Financial Sector Development --- Financial Systems --- Markets Development --- Sub-National Bond --- Sub-National Bond Market --- Sub-National Bond Markets --- Sub-National Debt --- Sub-National Debt Market --- Sub-National Debt Market Development --- Sub-National Debt Markets --- Transition Countries

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French literature (outside France)

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Computable general equilibrium models --- Equilibrium (Economics) --- Statics and dynamics (Social sciences) --- Côte d'Ivoire --- Economic conditions --- Mathematical models. --- Economic policy