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Over the past twenty years, National Human Rights Institutions (NHRIs) have moved from the periphery to the centre of the human rights debate. The potential of NHRIs to transmit and implement international norms at the domestic level, and to transfer human rights expertise to regional and global human rights fora, is increasingly recognised. In Europe, the continent with the widest variety and density of human rights protection mechanisms, NHRIs are also gradually gaining recognition as actors that can enable more comprehensive and effective human rights promotion and protection. This book, the result of a COST conference held in Leuven in April 2012, focuses on the functioning and role of NHRIs in Europe in a comparative, European and international perspective. At a time when the European Union is looking for a more coherent and strategic human rights policy, it is important that policy makers and academics pay more attention to the potential role of NHRIs. By bringing together contributions from academics and practitioners, this volume offers insights into the opportunities and challenges that accompany the increasing emergence of NHRIs in Europe and their proliferation on the multiple levels of human rights promotion and protection. Accordingly, this volume aims to inform and further trigger the NHRI debate in Europe.

Comparative law --- Human rights --- Europe --- National human rights institutions --- Human rights. --- Institutions nationales des droits de l'homme --- Droits de l'homme (Droit international) --- Human Rights --- Droit international --- Droits de l'homme (droit européen) --- 342.7 <4> --- Grondwettelijke rechten en vrijheden. Fundamentele rechten--Europa --- 342.7 <4> Grondwettelijke rechten en vrijheden. Fundamentele rechten--Europa --- 180.1 Kinderrechten - Internationaal --- Droit international. --- National human rights institutions - Europe --- Danemark --- Pologne --- Pays-Bas --- Belgique

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'What does the international legal examination of international (UN, European and network) regulatory frameworks concerning (European) NHRIs tell us about the position of NHRIs towards the state in the multi-layered human rights system?' This is the overarching research question this dissertation aims to answer. Accordingly, two common threads run throughout the dissertation:1. the international legal approach to the study of NHRIs as bridge-builders in a multi-layered human rights system;2. attention for the specific position of the state -and NHRIs as state institutions- on the basis of the analysis of the multi-layered regulation concerning NHRIs (which addresses domestic and supra-national aspects of NHRIs)The dissertation is divided in two overarching parts:Part I. The international legal analysis of international regulatory frameworks concerning (European) NHRIs, encompassing 3 different but interlinked regulatory frameworks:1. UN regulatory frameworks concerning NHRIs2. European (CoE, OSCE and EU) regulatory frameworks concerning NHRIs3. Network regulatory frameworks concerning NHRIsPart II. Revisiting (European) NHRIs from the perspective of their multi-layered regulation, addressing three themes:1. The multi-layered identification of (European) NHRIs2. The multi-layered role of (European) NHRIs3. The multi-layered status of (European) NHRIsIntermediary conclusions at the end of each chapter wrap up the main findings with regards each of the regulatory frameworks/ themes addressed. Overarching conclusions at the end of the dissertation bring together the research findings in a cross-cutting manner with special attention for the assessment of the position of NHRIs towards the state in the multi-layered human rights system. The main recommendations for policy-makers across the different regulatory frameworks studied are formulated, and avenues for further research are highlighted in the final conclusions too.

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This dissertation deals with a problem that constitutes a big challenge for the Antarctica Treaty System (ATS): the conflict between the increasing biological prospecting activities in Antarctica and the perception of the Antarctic region as being a Global Common, protected from exploitative activities and dedicated to scientific research. The issue of bioprospecting in Antarctica has been on the agenda of the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting since 1999. The pharmaceutical and biotechnology industry have shown an increasing interest in the substances on Antarctica, which consequently has led to an increase in the number of patents that include Antarctic biological material. However, a specific legal regime regulating Antarctic bioprospecting does not exist. The ATS, which has the protection of Antarctica as a Global Common as its primary goal, does not expressly regulate bioprospecting activities either. However, while the ATS provisions can be used as guidelines for bioprospecting activities carried out on Antarctica, it is not sufficient, for it contains several lacunae regarding this issue. Therefore, a solution has been sought in three international frameworks beyond the ATS that are relevant for bioprospecting: The Convention on Biological Diversity, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and the TRIPS-Agreement. However, while these international regimes can serve as guidelines for a future regulatory framework regarding Antarctic bioprospecting, none of these seem to provide an effective regulation for Antarctic bioprospecting. Consequently, it is clear that there is a stringent need for a future regulatory framework on Antarctic bioprospecting that will manage to fill in the existing lacunae concerning this activity. By setting out a clear gap analysis of the ATS regarding biological prospecting and by analysing the possible gap-filling solutions found in several relevant international regimes beyond the ATS, it contributes to the development of a good structure within the new regulation. All expectations concerning the issue of bioprospecting in Antarctica lie in the hands of the Antarctic Treaty Parties. Let us hope that these parties will develop a clear, concise and comprehensive legal framework that balances the integrity of the Global Commons and the commercial potential of Antarctic material in a proper way.

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Samenvatting Sinds de Universele Verklaring van de Rechten van de Mens in 1948 is er sprake van een toenemend belang voor mensenrechten en meer specifiek voor de universaliteit van mensenrechten dewelke toebehoren aan individuen. Binnen de grote groep van mensenrechten bevinden zich twee verwante mensenrechten waarop deze masterthesis is gebaseerd, namelijk de vrijheid van religie en de vrijheid van meningsuiting. Eerst en vooral zal er worden ingegaan op de specifieke inhoud van beide vrijheden. Hier zal duidelijk worden dat beide vrijheden een aantal deelaspecten met zich meebrengen. Om een gedetailleerd en volledig beeld te krijgen van beide vrijheden is een samenspel tussen enerzijds het bindend verdragsrecht en anderzijds de niet bindende bronnen in het kader van de Verenigde Naties vereist. Hierbij geeft het bindend verdragsrecht de essentiële bouwstenen weer en de niet bindende bronnen van de Verenigde Naties een aanvulling hierop, waarbij er kan worden ingespeeld op de evoluerende werking van beide vrijheden gebaseerd op de noden van de huidige samenleving. Vervolgens zal het duidelijk worden dat beide vrijheden samenhangende, onderling afhankelijke en elkaar versterkende mensenrechten zijn. Dankzij deze bijzondere verhouding ten opzichte van elkaar zijn beide vrijheden het instrument om de strijd tegen intolerantie, discriminatie en geweld op basis van religie samen aan te gaan. Ten slotte is het desondanks de speciale verhouding van beide mensenrechten ten opzichte van elkaar daarentegen mogelijk dat er een conflict ontstaat tussen beide mensenrechten. In het kader hiervan zal er specifiek worden toegespitst op het typevoorbeeld van zulk conflict, namelijk godslastering. In het kader van godslastering is er sprake van een relatief recentelijke nieuwe wending vanwege de Verenigde Naties dewelke inspeelt op nieuwe vraagstukken die kunnen ontstaan in het kader van godslastering. Evenwel wordt het duidelijk dat een echte beslechting van godslastering uitblijft. De Verenigde Naties richt zich in de verschillende resoluties meer op een preventie van zulk conflict dan op een beslechting. De Verenigde Naties schuiven deze verantwoordelijkheid naar de Staten dewelke hun nationale wetgeving in overeenstemming dienen te brengen met de geïdentificeerde maatregelen die kunnen worden genomen in het kader van godslastering.