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The organic chemists of Russia during the pre-revolutionary period counted among their number some of the most creative and talented chemists of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, as is attested to by the number of reactions and empirical rules bearing their names. From the founding of the Russian Academy of Sciences by Peter the Great in 1725 to the early years of the nineteenth century, Russian organic chemistry was largely in the hands of foreign scientists. The Russification of organic chemistry in Russia had begun before the middle of the nineteenth century, and reached its zenith during the last half of the same century, with vibrant schools of chemistry arising in the eastern city of Kazan', and at Moscow and St. Petersburg. By the end of the century, the Chairs of organic chemistry at universities throughout the Russian empire were occupied by Russian chemists, almost half of them trained at Kazan'. The contributions of these organic chemists encompass the structural theory of organic chemistry, empirical rules for addition and elimination, alcohol synthesis using organozinc nucleophiles, sulfoxides and sulfonium salts, and a range of redox reactions, as well as the aldol addition. The decades before the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 saw a broadening of the chemistry developed by Russian organic chemists. In this Brief, the history of the development of organic chemistry in Russia is discussed.

Chemistry, Organic -- Charts, diagrams, etc. --- Chemistry. --- Molecular orbitals -- Charts, diagrams, etc. --- Chemistry --- Physical Sciences & Mathematics --- Biochemistry --- Chemistry, Organic --- Chemists --- History. --- Organic chemistry --- Organic chemistry. --- Organic Chemistry. --- History of Science. --- History, general. --- Chemical workers --- Physical scientists --- Chemistry, Organic. --- Annals --- Auxiliary sciences of history

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The administrative state is the nexus of American policy making in the postwar period. The vague and sometimes conflicting policy mandates of Congress, the president, and courts are translated into real public policy in the bureaucracy. As the role of the national government has expanded, the national legislature and executive have increasingly delegated authority to administrative agencies to make fundamental policy decisions. How this administrative state is designed, its coherence, its responsiveness, and its efficacy determine, in Robert Dahl’s phrase, “who gets what, when, and how.” This study of agency design, thus, has implications for the study of politics in many areas. The structure of bureaucracies can determine the degree to which political actors can change the direction of agency policy. Politicians frequently attempt to lock their policy preferences into place through insulating structures that are mandated by statute or executive decree. This insulation of public bureaucracies such as the National Transportation Safety Board, the Federal Election Commission, and the National Nuclear Security Administration, is essential to understanding both administrative policy outputs and executive-legislative politics in the United States. This book explains why, when, and how political actors create administrative agencies in such a way as to insulate them from political control, particularly presidential control.

Administrative agencies --- Bureaucracy --- Presidents --- United States --- Politics and government --- Administrative agencies - United States --- Bureaucracy - United States --- Presidents - United States --- United States - Politics and government - 1945-1989 --- United States - Politics and government - 1989 --- -Administrative agencies --- #SBIB:35H1122 --- #SBIB:35H6030 --- Bestuurlijke organisatie: centrale besturen: Verenigde Staten --- Bestuur en beleid: nationale en regionale studies: Verenigde Staten

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Addition, Elimination and Substitution: Markovnikov, Hofmann, Zaitsev and Walden: Discovery and Development discusses foundational reactions in organic chemistry and their major protagonists, contributions to synthesis, and history. Hofmann, Zaitsev, and Markovnikov are introduced, along with their major discoveries and contributions to organic chemistry. The history of controversies around Markovnikovs Rule are addressed. The book introduces Waldens original demonstration of configuration inversion, then discusses bimolecular elimination reactions, regioselective addition reactions, regiospecific alkene synthesis, and the development of modern reactions with configuration inversion.

Chemistry, Organic. --- Chemical reactions. --- Organic compounds --- Synthesis. --- Chemistry, Organic --- Chemistry, Synthetic organic --- Organic synthesis (Chemistry) --- Synthetic organic chemistry --- Reactions, Chemical --- Chemical processes --- Organic chemistry --- Chemistry --- Synthesis --- Organic Chemistry Phenomena --- History. --- history

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Pure sciences. Natural sciences (general) --- Organic chemistry --- History --- wetenschapsgeschiedenis --- organische chemie --- geschiedenis

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Grenada --- Grenada --- Grenada --- Politics and government. --- Economic conditions. --- Social conditions.