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Consequently, the political party as principal looked increasingly to the party presidency as appropriate tool to discipline both the members of parliament and the party-in-government. Our research highlights next to the overall trend towards more party discipline and voting cohesion the different paths the Belgian parties have followed. These different historical trajectories are significantly affected by the differences in party organisation the Belgian parties displayed at turn of the 19th and the 20th century. The catholic and liberal cadre parties had much more difficulties in turning their members of parliament into subordinate party agents when compared with the socialist mass party Consequently, this thesis looks at the mechanisms the principal has at his disposal to overcome the agency problem: the possible opportunistic behaviour of the agent. These mechanisms are: (1) a contract design of the relationship between principal and agent, (2) selection mechanisms, (3) periodic reporting of the agents behaviour, (4) institutional checks and (5) sanctions. The analysis reveals Belgian political parties used all mechanisms mentioned above in order to gain control over the behaviour of their parliamentary party groups. Their success in doing so in the period 1918-1970 has led to a marked increase in the levels of parliamentary voting cohesion. Full party discipline on the other hand was never achieved with regard to matters opposing both language groups: Flemish and French speaking Belgians. The political parties which figure in this thesis all evolve in the same direction: towards a more powerful extra-parliamentary party organisation, with the rise of the party presidency as the most important position in the Belgian political system. The rise of the party presidency differs from the institutionalisation of the parliamentary party group presidency, which never achieved the prominence of the party presidency. The difference between both positions is explained by their respective relationship with the government ministers. The party presidency has been designed, in the aftermath of the Second World War, as a party agent in order to control both the behaviour of the parliamentary party and of the party-in-government. The leadership of the parliamentary party group on the other hand never managed to subordinate the party-in-government. This thesis explores the relation between Belgian political parties and their members of parliament from 1918 until 1970. Political scientists, the press and even politicians label the Belgian polity a partitocracy, in which the political parties yield too much power. Yet there is no agreement amongst historians and political scientists on the beginning of this partitocracy, although there is since Duverger (1951) a general agreement that parties underwent a profound transformation from 19th century cadre parties to 20th century mass parties. Cornerstone of the partitocracy is the subordination of the parliamentary party group to the (extra-parliamentary) party. In the 20th century mass party the parliamentary party group is supposed to be an agent of the party on the ground. Hence, this thesis explores the relationship between the parliamentary party group and the party organisation as the relation between an agent and a principal.

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The PhD dissertation entitled The Ethiopian Public Sector Leadership Profile Unveiled: Determining the Leadership Profile of the Ethiopian Federal Civil Service Organizations is motivated by calls for Afro-specific leadership research and pragmatic leadership problem in Ethiopian federal civil service organizations. It dealt with profiling the civil service leaders contrasting how the leaders are expected to act in terms of contextual antecedents vis-à-vis leaders role preferences. It aimed to reconcile the differences between them (if any), to enable leaders to lead effectively. To this end, the study looked at leadership through the lens of the 3Cs model: context, content, and conduct. We first assessed the antecedent conditions ((cultural, political, organisational-administrative level factors) and explored their ramifications for the leaders role. Then, we studied role preferences of the leaders. Finally, we contrasted the expected with the prefe rred leadership roles and suggested needed measures at the individual as well as institutional levels to reconcile the observed incongruence. The conduct of leadership action is left for future research. our Q-methodological inquiry. Qmethodology is a method designed to investigate subjectivity. In the present work, we used Q-methodology to examine how the civil service leaders conceptualise their roles in their setting. Yet, Q- results lack generalizability. We, therefore, went on further and extended the Q finding with a survey. Of the possible approaches of extending Q with a survey, the Browns SFIS and the SCtAFDs were deliberately combined to compensate for the limitations of using a single approach. With a survey, we do not only secured information concerning the prevalence of the perspectives but also explained those factors using external variables, particularly the background characteristics of both the survey participants and the organisations. ubstantiate the data gathered through a survey and interview. More importantly, we have extended the scope of material sources by using non-textual information, namely indigenous aphorisms or proverbs, as needed. The non-textual information is quite helpful because sometimes a single expression can tell the whole story. cess, among others, are uncovered. At the organizational-administrative level, various reform measures, although overwhelmed by political concerns, have been implemented. The civil service allows permanency for the tenure of TCSs; the civil servants, at all levels, receive a standardised salary based on the civil service pay scale, and civil service pays less compared to NGOs (both for-profit and not-for-profit), even when contrasted to parastatals. There is a weak performance pay link. Competition among civil service organisations is almost non-existent. Regardless of their type, organisations have low autonomy and mainly rely on the government treasury to run their operations. The public support for civil service is low and etcetera. stinct but interrelated expected leadership roles: (1) diversity-oriented leadership, (2) community-based/cohesive leadership, (3) Ubuntu, (4) paternalistic leadership, (5) group/relation-oriented leadership, (6) directive/autocratic leadership, (7) result-oriented leadership, (8) political loyalty leadership, (9) rule-following leadership, (10) integrity-oriented leadership, and (11) change-oriented leadership. rs behavioral dimensions aimed at change; the affective leaders stressed people and relationship management, and result-oriented realists emphasised goal accomplishments. The study, however, demonstrates that although the ostensible echoes of each of these perspectives were professed, there were overlooked functions that are needed to be performed for full practice of each. ^the rule-following political loyalty and accountability leadership. their training programme for civil servants in general and TCSs in particular. The exercise to examine whether the TDIs training programmes embrace the competencies that lead to mastery of the expected and preferred leadership roles uncovered that the content of TDIs training programmes is narrowly focused. It appears to boldly enhance the competencies to exercise result-oriented leadership and change-oriented leadership. The topics that uphold the ideals of Ubuntu, diversity-oriented leadership, paternalistic leadership and so forth are completely absent in the catalogue of the TDIs open training programmes. pment, and for the latter, measures for developing the institutional capacity utilisation and absorptive capacity are proposed.

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With this online course we wish to contribute to several educational policy goals: 1) facilitating the access of students to a particular discipline which is by nature interdisciplinary and international, which necessitates increasingly the need of e-learning; 2) contributing to lifelong learning by reaching an audience that has limited time and needs flexible study paths to combine work and study; 3) the professional development of an audience that is by nature interested in new ways of working, particular through e-platforms.