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This paper reviews the extent to which the Fund’s trade policy advice to the Baltic countries, Russia and other countries of the Former Soviet Union has been implemented. It broadly traces the evolution of trade policies, emphasizing the period from mid-1993 through end-1995, attempting to identify some of the factors affecting uneven progress in trade reform. Based on insights from the public choice literature on endogenous policy theory, the paper makes recommendations for refining Fund advice with a view to facilitating future progress on the trade-policy front.

Commercial policy --- Exports and Imports --- Exports --- Imports --- International economics --- International Trade Organizations --- International trade --- Public finance & taxation --- Tariff --- Tariffs --- Taxation --- Taxes --- Trade liberalization --- Trade Policy --- Trade policy --- Trade: General --- Russian Federation

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Excavations (Archaeology) --- Pharaohs --- Tombs --- Egypt --- Valley of the Kings (Egypt) --- Antiquities --- Antiquités égyptiennes --- Archéologie funéraire --- Circuits touristiques --- Antiquités égyptiennes --- Archéologie funéraire --- Excavations (Archaeology) - Egypt - Valley of the Kings --- Pharaohs - Tombs --- Tombs - Egypt --- Egypt - Antiquities

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Philae, Kom Ombo, Edfou, Esna et Dendara sont les temples de la période gréco-romaine (entre 300 av. J.-C. et 300 ap. J.-C.) les plus visités. Leurs parois sont couverts de textes, contrairement aux prestigieux sanctuaires de Karnak, de Médinet Habou ou d'Abydos, et fournissent les clefs interprétatives de ces derniers. Les hiérogrammates de Ptolémée ou de César ont transmis cette exégèse en exploitant des archives millénaires et en poussant à ses limites extrêmes les possibilités quasi infinies de l'écriture hiéroglyphique. Les monuments religieux égyptiens tardifs ne seraient que d'assez lourdes masses de pierre s'ils n'entretenaient pas, par leur décor et leurs textes, le souvenir du pharaon-dieu qui, fort de sa légitimité et grâce à sa double nature - divine et humaine -, perpétue la vie dans le vieux pays. Le populaire était certes convié, en quelques rares occasions, à manifester sa piété à la fois profonde et naïvement triviale; la splendeur de la conception intellectuelle, où le divin est exalté de manière érudite sur des murs porteurs de l'écriture la plus subtilement suggestive, constitue cependant l'apanage exclusif des «initiés dans le temple».

Temples égyptiens --- Antiquité --- Temples, Egyptian --- Architecture, Egyptian --- Gods, Egyptian --- Egypt --- Philae (Egypt) --- Ombos (Extinct city) --- Idfū (Egypt) --- Isnā (Egypt) --- Dandara (Egypt) --- History --- Buildings, structures, etc --- Temples --- Idfū (Egypt) --- Isnā (Egypt) --- Buildings, structures, etc. --- Antiquité. --- Egyptian language --- Writing, Hieroglyphic --- Antiquité. --- Temples, Egyptian - Egypt --- Architecture, Egyptian - Egypt --- Gods, Egyptian - Egypt --- Egypt - History - Greco-Roman period, 332 B.C.-640 A.D. --- Philae (Egypt) - Buildings, structures, etc --- Ombos (Extinct city) - Buildings, structures, etc --- Idfū (Egypt) - Buildings, structures, etc --- Isnā (Egypt) - Buildings, structures, etc --- Dandara (Egypt) - Buildings, structures, etc

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This paper examines the theory underpinning the design of optimal tariffs in a developing economy, and the experience of implementation of tariff reforms. A central issue is whether and when a case can be made for a uniform tariff structure. While theory advocates a differentiated tariff structure (except under a balance of payments objective), political economy considerations, inadequate information, and administrative convenience point to a minimally differentiated tariff structure. The experience of reform indicates that tariff structures are mainly influenced by income distribution and protection objectives. The ability to successfully reduce tariffs depends on measures taken to alleviate fiscal and balance of payments constraints.

Exports and Imports --- Foreign Exchange --- Macroeconomics --- Taxation --- Trade Policy --- International Trade Organizations --- Aggregate Factor Income Distribution --- Trade: General --- Empirical Studies of Trade --- Public finance & taxation --- International economics --- Currency --- Foreign exchange --- Tariffs --- Income distribution --- Imports --- Real effective exchange rates --- Duties --- Taxes --- National accounts --- International trade --- Tariff --- Colombia