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Using a formal general equilibrium framework, this paper analyzes how sanctions imposed on the contestants in civil conflict affect the welfare of these contestants and the allocation of resources to conflict. It is shown that weak sanctions can hurt the contestant they are supposed to help, while strong sanctions augment the expected welfare of their intended beneficiaries. Moreover, sanctions are more likely to be successful if the contestant who is subject to sanctions can expect to derive a positive income in case of compliance. The likelihood of success rises as this income increases.

Labor --- Macroeconomics --- Public Finance --- Welfare Economics: General --- Conflict --- Conflict Resolution --- Alliances --- Policy Objectives --- Policy Designs and Consistency --- Policy Coordination --- Intergovernmental Relations --- Federalism --- Secession --- Personal Income, Wealth, and Their Distributions --- Macroeconomics: Consumption --- Saving --- Wealth --- Labor Economics: General --- Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs: General --- National Security and War --- Labour --- income economics --- Public finance & taxation --- Personal income --- Consumption --- Wages --- Defense spending --- National accounts --- Expenditure --- Income --- Economics --- Labor economics --- Expenditures, Public --- South Africa --- Income economics

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Despite ambitious agricultural reforms initiated by the federal government, inefficient and unprofitable producers predominate in post-Soviet Russia. However, in some regions a more robust restructuring has taken place. Observing two Russian regions-one with substantially restructured agricultural production, and one in which Soviet-style coordination predominates-we develop a model of the interactions between political and economic incentives that lead to these divergent outcomes. The model identifies region- and sector-specific characteristics that encourage some regional governments to maintain Soviet-style redistribution structures and make producers forsake more efficient outcomes as more costly, while encouraging other regions to pursue reform.

Macroeconomics --- Public Finance --- Agribusiness --- Collectives --- Communes --- Agriculture --- Socialist Systems and Transitional Economies: Political Economy --- Property Rights --- Positive Analysis of Policy-Making and Implementation --- Macroeconomics: Production --- Agriculture: General --- Personal Income, Wealth, and Their Distributions --- National Government Expenditures and Related Policies: General --- Agricultural Policy --- Food Policy --- Agriculture, agribusiness & food production industries --- Agricultural economics --- Public finance & taxation --- Agricultural law --- Agricultural production --- Agricultural sector --- Personal income --- Government subsidies --- Agricultural policy --- Production --- Economic sectors --- National accounts --- Expenditure --- Agricultural industries --- Income --- Subsidies --- Agriculture and state --- Russian Federation

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In 2011, following years of large-scale external imbalances financed by debt, Portugal’s economy reached a crisis point. To restore economic growth and credibility with international lenders, the country embarked on a difficult path of fiscal adjustment and structural reforms. By many metrics, Portugal’s 2011–14 macroeconomic stabilization program has been a success, but going forward Portugal would benefit from policies to reduce vulnerabilities, absorb labor slack, and generate sustainable growth.

Fiscal policy --- Economic stabilization --- Portugal --- Economic conditions. --- Adjustment, Economic --- Business stabilization --- Economic adjustment --- Stabilization, Economic --- Economic policy --- Tax policy --- Taxation --- Finance, Public --- Government policy --- Debt Management --- Debt --- Debts, Public --- Demand and Supply of Labor: General --- Expenditure --- Expenditures, Public --- Exports and Imports --- Finance --- Finance: General --- Income economics --- Industries: Financial Services --- Institutions and the Macroeconomy --- International economics --- Labor economics --- Labor Economics: General --- Labor market --- Labor markets --- Labor --- Labour --- Macroeconomics --- Macrostructural analysis --- National Government Expenditures and Related Policies: General --- Public debt --- Public finance & taxation --- Public Finance --- Sovereign Debt --- Structural reforms

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Despite some improvement since 2011, Latin America and the Caribbean continue to lag behind other regions in terms of financial inclusion. There is no clear evidence that fintech developments have supported greater financial inclusion in LAC, contrary to what has been observed elsewhere in the world. Case studies by national policy experts suggest that barriers to entry in the financial sector, along with a constraining regulatory environment, may have hindered a faster adoption of fintech. However, fintech development seems to have accelerated in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic and with the support of recent policy initiatives.

Macroeconomics --- Economics: General --- Finance: General --- Industries: Financial Services --- Financial Institutions and Services: Government Policy and Regulation --- Economywide Country Studies: Latin America --- Caribbean --- Financial Markets and the Macroeconomy --- Monetary Systems --- Standards --- Regimes --- Government and the Monetary System --- Payment Systems --- Financial Institutions and Services: General --- Economic & financial crises & disasters --- Economics of specific sectors --- Finance --- Computer applications in industry & technology --- Financial inclusion --- Financial markets --- Fintech --- Technology --- Financial services --- Financial sector --- Economic sectors --- Currency crises --- Informal sector --- Economics --- Financial services industry --- Technological innovations --- Mexico