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In Roads to Health, G. Geltner demonstrates that urban dwellers in medieval Italy had a keen sense of the dangers to their health posed by conditions of overcrowding, shortages of food and clean water, air pollution, and the improper disposal of human and animal waste. He consults scientific, narrative, and normative sources that detailed and consistently denounced the physical and environmental hazards urban communities faced: latrines improperly installed and sewers blocked; animals left to roam free and carcasses left rotting on public byways; and thoroughfares congested by artisanal and commercial activities that impeded circulation, polluted waterways, and raised miasmas. However, as Geltner shows, numerous administrative records also offer ample evidence of the concrete measures cities took to ameliorate unhealthy conditions. Toiling on the frontlines were public functionaries generally known as viarii, or "road-masters," appointed to maintain their community's infrastructures and police pertinent human and animal behavior. Operating on a parallel track were the camparii, or "field-masters," charged with protecting the city's hinterlands and thereby the quality of what would reach urban markets, taverns, ovens, and mills.Roads to Health provides a critical overview of the mandates and activities of the viarii and camparii as enforcers of preventive health and safety policies between roughly 1250 and 1500, and offers three extended case studies, for Lucca, Bologna, and the smaller Piedmont town of Pinerolo. In telling their stories, Geltner contends that preventive health practices, while scientifically informed, emerged neither solely from a centralized regime nor as a reaction to the onset of the Black Death. Instead, they were typically negotiated by diverse stakeholders, including neighborhood residents, officials, artisans, and clergymen, and fostered throughout the centuries by a steady concern for people's greater health.

Urban health --- Public health --- Public health laws --- City dwellers --- History --- Health and hygiene --- Lucca (Italy) --- Bologna (Italy) --- Pinerolo (Italy) --- Social conditions --- Caregiving. --- Ecology. --- Environmental Studies. --- Health. --- History. --- Medicine. --- Medieval and Renaissance Studies.

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Prisons --- Imprisonment --- Criminal justice, Administration of --- Social history --- Prisons --- Emprisonnement --- Justice pénale --- Histoire sociale --- History. --- History --- Histoire --- Administration --- Histoire --- Italy --- Italie --- History --- Histoire

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Political corruption --- Moral conditions --- Morals --- Boss rule --- Corruption (in politics) --- Graft in politics --- Malversation --- Political scandals --- Politics, Practical --- History --- Corrupt practices --- Corruption investigation --- Social history --- Social norms --- Corruption --- Misconduct in office --- History.

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The essays in this volume were presented at a conference honoring John V. Fleming at Princeton University on April 21-22, 2004. The aim of the conference was to revisit Fleming's 1977 book, An Introduction to the Franciscan Literature of the Middle Ages, from a number of different perspectives, including social, religious and literary history, as well as art, exegesis, political thought and the history of education. A prominent, but not exclusive, theme of the contributions is the distinction between "defenders" and "critics" of medieval Franciscanism. Recent scholarship has shown that the dividing line between medieval defenders and critics of Franciscan life was not as sharp or as clear as had once been thought. This, more nuanced approach to medieval Franciscanism is a reflection of the many scholarly developments that have occurred since - and as a result of - Fleming's volume. The present work offers a selection of current approaches to the question.

Monastic and religious life --- Franciscans --- Capuchins --- Conventuals --- Franciscan Recollects --- Alcantarines --- Bernardyni --- Cordeliers --- Discalced Friars Minor --- Família Franciscana --- Frades Menores --- Frailes Menores --- Franciscains --- Franciscains mineurs --- Franciscan Discalceati --- Franciscan Order --- Franciscan Reformati --- Franciszkanie --- Frant︠s︡iskanskiĭ orden --- Frant︠s︡iskant︠s︡y --- Frati minori --- Fratres minores --- Frères mineurs --- Friars, Gray --- Friars Minor --- Gråbrøderne --- Gray Friars --- Grey Friars --- Mala braća --- Minderbrüder --- Minoriten --- Minorites --- O.F.M. --- Observants --- OFM --- Ojcowie Franciszkanie --- Ordem dos Frades Menores --- Ordem dos Franciscanos --- Ordem Franciscana --- Orden de Frailes Menores --- Orden de los Frailes Menores --- Orden Franciscana --- Orden sv. Frant︠s︡iska --- Order of Friars Minor --- Ordine dei Frati Minori --- Ordine dei minori --- Ordre des frères franciscains mineurs --- Ordo Fratrum Minorum --- Reformati --- Reformed Franciscans --- Seraphic Order