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This paper considers various dimensions and sources of gender inequality and presents policies and best practices to address these. With women accounting for fifty percent of the global population, inclusive growth can only be achieved if it promotes gender equality. Despite recent progress, gender gaps remain across all stages of life, including before birth, and negatively impact health, education, and economic outcomes for women. The roadmap to gender equality has to rely on legal framework reforms, policies to promote equal access, and efforts to tackle entrenched social norms. These need to be set in the context of arising new trends such as digitalization, climate change, as well as shocks such as pandemics.

Women''s Studies' --- Gender Studies --- Wage Level and Structure --- Wage Differentials --- Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs: Public Policy --- Mobility, Unemployment, and Vacancies: Public Policy --- Labor Discrimination --- Economic Development: Human Resources --- Human Development --- Income Distribution --- Migration --- Technological Change: Choices and Consequences --- Diffusion Processes --- Economics of Gender --- Non-labor Discrimination --- Health: General --- Education: General --- Gender studies --- women & girls --- Social discrimination & equal treatment --- Gender studies, gender groups --- Health economics --- Education --- Women --- Gender inequality --- Gender --- Health --- Sex discrimination --- Sex role --- India --- Sex discrimination in employment. --- Economic development. --- Gender equality. --- Women''s Studies'. --- Gender Studies. --- Wage Level and Structure. --- Wage Differentials. --- Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs: Public Policy. --- Mobility, Unemployment, and Vacancies: Public Policy. --- Labor Discrimination. --- Economic Development: Human Resources. --- Human Development. --- Income Distribution. --- Migration. --- Technological Change: Choices and Consequences. --- Diffusion Processes. --- Economics of Gender. --- Non-labor Discrimination. --- Health: General. --- Education: General. --- women & girls. --- Social discrimination & equal treatment. --- Gender studies, gender groups. --- Health economics. --- Education. --- Women. --- Gender inequality. --- Gender. --- Health. --- Sex discrimination. --- Sex role. --- India. --- Women in development.

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August 1997 Is there more to regional trade agreements than the traditional gains from trade? The past decade has witnessed an explosion in the number of regional trade agreements. There seems to be a general, if ill-defined, belief on the part of many policymakers and academics that there is more to such agreements than the traditional gains from trade (thus the term new regionalism). Fernández examines several possible benefits that regional trade agreements may confer on their partners, including credibility, signaling, bargaining power, insurance, and a mechanism for coordination. She assesses the conditions necessary for each of these benefits, gives stylized examples of policies that might bring about those conditions, and discusses the plausibility of those conditions existing. In this light, she examines the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the European association agreements between the European Union and the countries in Central and Eastern Europe. She concludes that regional trade agreements can serve a useful economic purpose beyond the direct gains from trade liberalization, by reducing uncertainties and improving credibility and thus making it easier for the private sector to plan and invest. Indeed, reducing uncertainty may be essential for realizing gains from liberalization. Whether economies benefit from a particular regional trade agreements depends on the scope and coverage of its provisions, the nature of the enforcement mechanism, the circumstances in which the agreement can be amended, and changes in the behavioral incentives for various agents in the economy that result from it. It is important to examine these factors carefully and to evaluate the feasibility of freer trade in their absence when determining the effects of regional trade agreements on world welfare. This paper-a product of the International Trade Division, International Economics Department-is part of the division's Program on Regionalism and Development.

Commercial policy. --- Commercial treaties.

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This paper reviews the literature on culture and economics, focusing primarily on the epidemiological approach. The epidemiological approach studies the variation in outcomes across different immigrant groups residing in the same country. Immigrants presumably differ in their cultures but share a common institutional and economic environment. This allows one to separate the effect of culture from the original economic and institutional environment. This approach has been used to study a variety of issues, including female labor force participaiton, fertility, labor market regulation, redistribution, growth, and financial development among others.

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Why has the expansion of women's economic and political rights coincided with economic development? This paper investigates this question, focusing on a key economic right for women: property rights. The basic hypothesis is that the process of development (i.e., capital accumulation and declining fertility) exacerbated the tension in men's conflicting interests as husbands versus fathers, ultimately resolving them in favor of the latter. As husbands, men stood to gain from their privileged position in a patriarchal world whereas, as fathers, they were hurt by a system that afforded few rights to their daughters. The model predicts that declining fertility would hasten reform of women's property rights whereas legal systems that were initially more favorable to women would delay them. The theoretical relationship between capital and the relative attractiveness of reform is non-monotonic but growth inevitably leads to reform. I explore the empirical validity of the theoretical predictions by using cross-state variation in the US in the timing of married women obtaining property and earning rights between 1850 and 1920.

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Attitudes towards same-sex relationships in the US have changed radically over a relatively short period of time. After remaining fairly constant for over two decades, opinions became more favorable starting in 1992--a presidential election year in which the Democratic and Republican parties took opposing stands over the status of gay people in society. What roles did political parties and their leaders play in this process of cultural change? Using a variety of techniques including machine learning, we show that the partisan opinion gap emerged substantially prior to 1992--in the mid 1980s --and did not increase as a result of the political debates in 1992-'93. Furthermore, we identify people with a college-and-above education as the potential "leaders" of the process of partisan divergence.