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Dissertation
Risk Analysis and Spatio-Temporal Modeling of Wildfires in Belgium
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Year: 2016

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Book
Wildfire ignition probability in Belgium
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Year: 2020

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In recent decades, large wildfires have inflicted considerable damage on valuable Natura 2000 regions in Belgium. Despite these events and the general perception that global change will exacerbate wildfire prevalence, this has not been studied yet in the Belgian context. Therefore, the national government initiated the national action plan on wildfires in order to evaluate the wildfire risk, on the one hand, and the materials, procedures, and training of fire services, on the other hand.
This study focuses on the spatial distribution of the ignition probability, a component of the wildfire risk framework. In a first stage, we compile a historical wildfire database using (i) newspaper articles between 1994 and 2016 and (ii) a list of wildfire interventions between 2010 and 2013, provided by the government. In a second stage, we use a straightforward method relying on Bayes’ rule and a limited number of covariates to calculate the ignition probability.
It appears that most wildfire-prone areas in Belgium are located in heathland where military exercises are held. The provinces that have the largest relative areas with a high or very high wildfire risk are Limburg and Antwerp. Our study also revealed that most wildfire ignitions in Belgium are caused by humans (both arson and negligence) and that natural causes such as lightning are rather scarce. Wildfire prevention can be improved by (i) excluding military activity in fire-prone areas during the fire season, (ii) improving collaboration with foreign emergency services, (iii) concentrating the dedicated resources in the areas that display the highest ignition probabilities, (iv) improving fire detection methods, and (v) raising more awareness among the public.

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Dissertation
Landslides in a Changing Tropical Environment : The North Tanganyika-Kivu Rift Region, Africa

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Landslides are one of the most important natural hazards in mountainous environments. They cause thousands of fatalities every year, especially in the Global South where the social and economic vulnerability is high. Since the beginning of the second half of the twentieth century, a period referred to as the Anthropocene, human activity has increasingly led to changes in the environment, exacerbating both the occurrence and impacts of landslides.The North Tanganyika-Kivu Rift Region (NTK Rift) is a landslide-prone mountainous environment embedded in the western branch of the East-African Rift. The area encompasses parts of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Rwanda, and Burundi. In the past six decades, the population of the NTK Rift quintupled and a large portion of the forests was lost, especially in the DRC. Although landslide casualties are frequent in the NTK Rift, the region has hitherto received little attention in landslide literature, partly due to the scarcity of available data.In this work, we investigate the spatial patterns of landsliding by providing a first regional landslide susceptibility (LSS) assessment for the NTK Rift. We show that such a regional assessment is much more accurate than the existing global or continental susceptibility maps that are openly available. Most of the added value of such a regional assessment is generated through the compilation of a regional landslide inventory, rather than the model choice or the availability of detailed regional variables. Besides the fact that the vast majority of landslides in the past few decades were triggered by extreme rainfall, we find that the most important driving factors of LSS in the NTK Rift are the slope gradient, moderate seismic activity that weakens and fractures the hillslope material, a concave slope morphology, and land cover (LC) (e.g. the presence of forest cover).With regard to forests, we observe that deforestation increases shallow landslide activity by a factor of 2 to 8. This landslide wave persists for roughly 15 years. The landslide response to deforestation depends on the geomorphic context of the landscape. Rejuvenated landscapes, for example, exert a weaker response to deforestation compared to relict landscapes. This weaker response can be linked to three factors at play in the rejuvenated landscapes: (i) the occurrence of high-magnitude earthquakes in the past that depleted the most unstable regolith, (ii) a thinner regolith mantle due to the younger age of the landscape, and (iii) fewer extreme rainfall events that can trigger landslides.We use these new insights to reconstruct how population pressure and forest cover changes have affected shallow landslide risk in the NTK Rift over the past six decades. To do so, we develop a holistic landslide risk model which evaluates 58 years of population and forest cover trends. To reconstruct the forest cover trends, we rely on the historical aerial photographs of 1958 that are conserved at the Royal Museum for Central Africa (RMCA) in Tervuren, Belgium. We show that the current landslide risk in the eastern DRC is twice as high as in neighboring Rwanda and Burundi. Congolese households, on average, populate more hazardous terrain, likely as a result of conflicts and economic pull-factors such asmining. Moreover, the recent large-scale deforestation of primary rainforest in the DRC has increased the landslide risk by ca. 40 %. This analysis demonstrates how the legacy of deforestation, conflicts, and population dynamics resonates in the shallow landslide risk in the NTK Rift.Finally, we explore how human disturbances in the landscape have exacerbated shallow and deep-seated landslide mobilization rates (a proxy for landslide erosion). For this purpose, we use the historical aerial photographs of the RMCA to differentiate between 'old' landslides (triggered before 1958) and recent landslides (triggered after 1958) that contributed to the overall mobilization rates in the Anthropocene. We find that humans have a limited impact on these rates (5-18 %). Within rejuvenated landscapes, the construction of roads has the most adverse impact, while, in relict landscapes, mining exerts the largest influence, especially in the eastern DRC. The average landslide mobilization rate in the rejuvenated landscapes of the NTK Rift is ca. 32 m3 km–2 year–1, which is one order of magnitude lower than what is commonly observed in other mountainous areas around the world. This is explained by our long observation period (61 years) and the extent of our study area which is at least twice as large compared to studies in other regions. Hence, we avoid that extreme landslide events skew our observed mobilization rates upward. Moreover, we did not observe any high-magnitude earthquakes which could considerably increase the mobilization rates and are expected to occur sporadically in the NTK Rift, as demonstrated by the dozens of old large (>1 km2) landslides in the vicinity of active faults.In conclusion, landslides are frequent in the NTK Rift. Most instances are triggered by intense rainfall and controlled by factors such as slope gradient, moderate seismic activity, slope concavity, and LC. Deforestation, for example, leads to a two- to eight-fold increase in shallow landsliding for a period of 15 years. As such, we estimate that, during the Anthropocene, the growing human pressure on forests has led to an increase of 40 % in landslide disaster risk. While the human impact on landslide hazard and risk is large, the effect on landslide mobilization rates is more limited (5-18 %) and associated mainly with road construction and mining activity. In the long term, sporadic high-magnitude earthquakes are expected to considerably increase the observed landslide disaster risk and landslide mobilization rates. This work helps to better understand the landslide processes in a changing tropical environment and the manner in which these landslide processes collide with growing societies.

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Dissertation
Landslides in western Rwanda and the role of agriculture - A dissection of two rainfall-induced landslide events
Authors: --- --- --- ---
Year: 2021 Publisher: Leuven KU Leuven. Faculteit Wetenschappen

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The aim of this master's thesis is to quantify the impact of land use, with a focus on agricultural terraces, on the occurrence of landslides in western Rwanda. The agricultural practice of terracing has become a widespread soil and water conservation measure on Rwanda's steeplands, though hitherto the impact of terracing on landslides remains poorly understood. To address this research gap, we investigated two areas in western Rwanda that recently experienced large landslide events as a consequence of heavy rain. Our objective was to quantify how terracing, but also other human disturbances such as deforestation and road construction, play a role in the spatial distribution of those landslides. We found that human disturbances increased the odds of landsliding up to 6.5 %. The conversion of regular cropland and grassland into terraces, as well as terraces that were already present in 1958 were the most important contributors to this increase. Analogously, we found that the landslide erosion rate in terraced land is up to four times higher than in regular cropland and grassland. Yet, it should be mentioned that the results were not consistent between the different study areas. In conclusion, in spite of its effectiveness in controlling run-off and erosion, we found that terracing may be a detrimental factor for landsliding.

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Dissertation
Does the presence of deep-seated landslides increase shallow landslide hazard?

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Wereldwijd zijn aardverschuivingen een belangrijk landschapsvormend proces en miljoenen mensen worden erdoor getroffen. Deze aardverschuivingen zullen materiaal (zoals bodem en stenen) van een hoger punt op de helling naar een lager punt verplaatsen door zwaartekracht. Toch zijn er voor veel gebieden vaak geen ruimtelijke gegevens over aardverschuivingen beschikbaar. De noordelijke Iburengerazuba provincie in Rwanda is zo’n gebied met weinig gegevens, waar aardverschuivingen vaak voorkomen, maar waarnemingen beperkt zijn. Bovendien werd dit gebied in de eerste weken van mei 2020 getroffen werden door hevige regenval, waardoor oogsten werden vernietigd, levens en levensonderhoud van de bewoners verloren gingen, maar ook verschillende overstromingen en aardverschuivingen plaatsvonden. De hevige regen begon op 1 mei en strekte zich uit over de noordelijke, zuidelijke en westelijke provincies van Rwanda. Omdat aardverschuivingen een grote impact kunnen hebben op de inwoners van de regio, is een goede beoordeling van de aardverschuivingsgevoeligheid van groot belang. Zo kan de impact van natuurrampen in de toekomst beperkt worden. Het doel van dit onderzoek was om een beter inzicht te krijgen in de aardverschuivingsgevoeligheid van de regio, en meer specifiek de rol van de oudere, diepe aardverschuivingen in het verklaren van de meer frequente, ondiepe aardverschuivingen waarvan er jaarlijks duizenden voorvallen. Eerst werd onderzocht of de diepe aardverschuivingen werden gereactiveerd door de hevige regenval in mei 2020. Een uitgebreide aardverschuivingsinventaris werd gemaakt door elke zichtbare aardverschuiving in het gebied te bestuderen op Google Earth beeldmateriaal. Na het maken van de inventaris werd een activiteitenindex berekend om aan te geven hoe actief de diepe aardverschuiving is met behulp van verschillende attributen van deze aardverschuiving, zoals beschadigde wegen en gebouwen, vervorming en verstoring van de helling etc. Uit de resultaten blijkt dat de activiteitenindex van de diepe aardverschuivingen hoger is na de regenval. Daardoor kan worden geconcludeerd dat de diepe aardverschuivingen, ondanks het feit dat ze vaak meer dan tientallen jaren oud zijn, ze door zware regenval opnieuw kunnen worden geactiveerd. Vervolgens werd de invloed van de aanwezigheid van diepe aardverschuivingen op ondiepe aardverschuivingen onderzocht. Deze methode evalueerde de relatie tussen een ondiepe aardverschuiving en meerdere voorspellende factoren zoals hellingsgraad, landgebruik, lithologie, kromming van de helling etc. De diepe aardverschuivingen werden toegevoegd als één van de voorspellers, om hun invloed op het optreden van ondiepe aardverschuivingen te bepalen. De resultaten tonen aan dat de aanwezigheid van een diepe aardverschuiving met een activiteitenindex hoger dan nul de gevoeligheid voor aardverschuivingen doet toenemen. Diepe aardverschuivingen die geen tekenen van activiteit vertonen, hebben geen grote invloed op de gevoeligheid. Diepgewortelde aardverschuivingen waren niet de belangrijkste voorspellers in het model, de lithologie en het landgebruik hadden een grotere invloed op het optreden van een ondiepe aardverschuiving. De meeste ondiepe aardverschuivingen deden zich voor op gebieden met terrassen of weiland en werd de lithologie gedefinieerd als graniet.

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Dissertation
Future Wildfire Hazard in Portugal: a classic climate change story?
Authors: --- --- --- ---
Year: 2019 Publisher: Leuven KU Leuven. Faculteit Wetenschappen

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As of today, wildfires are a common risk in Portugal. They negatively impact human livelihood and the natural environment while both prevention and reconstruction cost a lot of money. Although intensively investigated, the impact of climate change on wildfires is still uncertain. To proactively counter wildfires in the future, accurate assessments of wildfire hazard are essential. To know how this will change in the future it is necessary to understand which meteorological or non-meteorological factors “drive” wildfires in Portugal. Within this thesis this question is paramount. It is hypothesized that these drivers of wildfires are not homogeneous for Portugal, as strong regional differences exist in wildfire hazard (fire regimes) and climate conditions. Hence, the impact of climate change is strongly connected to these regional differences. Where a region where wildfire hazard is very dependent on meteorological conditions the impact will be larger. Here, two stepwise regression approaches were used to identify drivers of the three main components of wildfire hazard: number of fires, burnt area and fire size between 2001-2017 for Portugal and its administrative districts. Different meteorological conditions (temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, precipitation and specific fire weather indices) and non-meteorological conditions such as land cover, gross-domestic product and measures for human interaction with the environment were used. After selecting the most accurate model constructed with the stepwise regression, projected meteorological conditions were incorporated to understand how the number of fires, burnt area and fire size will be impacted by climate change. It was identified that although wildfires are only common in the so-called fire season, the weather of the entire year determined the magnitude of the wildfire hazard. Wetter winters ease vegetation growth and thus increase fuel availability, intensifying the fire season. A dry and hot spring or autumn prolongs the fire season while a dry summer reduces fuel moisture and intensifies the fire season. More interaction between humans and the environment reduces the number of small fires, thereby increasing the proportion of large fires. Prosperity is observed to be important as well, as the amount of unemployed people is connected to an increased number of fires. Also, the vegetation type is observed to be important to understand regional differences: districts dominantly covered by Eucalyptus forests are more dependent on winter weather than others. Maritime pine forests in the North of Portugal are observed to be impacted mostly by summer and Southern cork oak forests are more resistant to fires and thus show no clear dependency of the weather in summer. As meteorological predictors only have a minor impact on past wildfire hazard trends compared to changes in non-meteorological conditions, it is assumed that the effect of climate change will superpose on future trends such as land use change, urbanisation or economic growth. Our projections of the effect of climate change are unclear and consist of many uncertainties which originate from the created models, future emission scenarios or climate models used. This research has pointed out that future wildfire hazard in Portugal is no classic climate change story.

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