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Representative government and representation. --- Political science.

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This paper examines the relationship between narcotics trafficking and violence in Central America. The first part of the paper addresses particular questions posed for the 2011 World Development Report and examines several competing hypothesis on the drivers of crime in Central America. A key finding is that areas exposed to intense narcotics trafficking in Central America suffer from higher homicide rates. Drug trafficking has corrupted state institutions, which have been overwhelmed by the resources deployed by trafficking organizations. The second part of the paper reviews the reasons drug trafficking and anti trafficking enforcement are associated with violence in general and consider policy options.

Accounting --- Adolescent Health --- Armed Forces --- Bribery --- Children and Youth --- Cocaine --- Conflict --- Conflict and Development --- Conflict Resolution --- Corruption --- Corruption & anticorruption Law --- Courts --- Crime and Society --- Drugs --- Gangs --- Health, Nutrition and Population --- Heroin --- Human Rights --- International Law --- Judiciary --- Law and Development --- Law Enforcement --- Leadership --- Marijuana --- Money Laundering --- Mortality --- Organized Crime --- Penalties --- Post Conflict Reconstruction --- Public Health --- Public officials --- Public Opinion --- Roads --- Social Development --- Treaties --- Violence --- Youth

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Representative government and representation. --- Political science.

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This paper extends the concept of learning poverty to provide local-level estimates of the share of children at age 10 who can read and understand a simple text in Colombia. The learning poverty indicator combines the share of children who are out of school and thus schooling deprived with the share of those in school who are learning deprived based on reading tests. Local-level estimates illustrate the immense gaps in learning poverty across municipalities in Colombia in a readily interpretable form. Learning poverty rates in some Colombian municipalities are below 20 percent-the average among high-income countries-while in others, rates exceed 90 percent-the average in Sub-Saharan Africa. High learning poverty rates at the local level are associated with high levels of multidimensional poverty, a large population share of ethnic minorities, and a history of conflict. The paper also shows that the rate of learning deprivation is 60 percent is public schools versus 30 percent in private schools and that reports from school principals identify large gaps between public and private schools in educational inputs. These results highlight the need to enhance foundational skills in public schools in Colombia.

Educational equalization.