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Unit metallurgical operations processes are usually separated into three categories: 1) hydrometallurgy (leaching, mixing, neutralization, precipitation, cementation, and crystallization); 2) pyrometallurgy (roasting and smelting); and 3) electrometallurgy (aqueous electrolysis and molten salt electrolysis). In hydrometallurgy, the aimed metal is first transferred from ores and concentrates to a solution using a selective dissolution (leaching or dry digestion) under an atmospheric pressure below 100 °C and under a high pressure (40-50 bar) and high temperature (below 270°C) in an autoclave. The purification of the obtained solution was performed using neutralization agents such as sodium hydroxide and calcium carbonate or more selective precipitation agents such as sodium carbonate and oxalic acid. The separation of metals is possible using a liquid/liquid process (solvent extraction in mixer-settler) and solid–liquid (filtration in filter-press under high pressure). Crystallization is the process by which a metallic compound is converted from a liquid into a solid crystalline state via a supersaturated solution. The final step is metal production using electrochemical methods (aqueous electrolysis for basic metals such as copper, zinc, silver, and molten salt electrolysis for rare earth elements and aluminum). Advanced processes, such as ultrasonic spray pyrolysis and microwave-assisted leaching, can be combined with reduction processes in order to produce metallic powders.

Technology: general issues --- History of engineering & technology --- Mining technology & engineering --- zirconium --- eudialyte --- hydrometallurgy --- basic sulfate precipitation --- macroporous polymer --- goethite --- factorial design --- desorption --- tailings reprocessing --- early stage cost estimation --- magnetic separation --- leaching --- flotation --- silica --- ultrasonic spray pyrolysis --- synthesis --- acid mine drainage --- red mud --- neutralization --- immobilization --- precipitation --- nitinol --- continuous vertical cast (CVC), NiTi rod --- atomic layer deposition --- corrosion properties --- potentiodynamic test --- electrochemical impedance spectroscopy --- rare earth elements --- recycling --- NdFeB --- magnet --- non-ferrous metals --- cavitation erosion --- optical microscopy --- electron microscopy --- atomic force microscopy --- aluminium --- thin-layer electrolysis --- molten salts --- halides --- capillary cell --- electrorefining --- non-commercial copper anode --- waste solution --- high content --- Ni --- Pb --- Sn --- Sb --- passivation --- anode slime --- pentlandite --- oxidation --- reaction mechanism --- phase analysis --- silver --- copper --- nanoparticles --- antibacterial --- MnO2 --- cobalt oxide Co3O4 --- perovskite materials --- oxygen reduction in alkaline media --- electrocatalyst --- Pt catalyst --- nanocomposite --- mixed oxides --- NiAl2O4 --- ZnAl2O4 --- electrocatalysis --- nanocatalyst --- noble metal nanoparticles --- leachate --- metal ions extraction --- selectivity --- Fe removal --- electrodeposition --- conductometry --- zirconium --- eudialyte --- hydrometallurgy --- basic sulfate precipitation --- macroporous polymer --- goethite --- factorial design --- desorption --- tailings reprocessing --- early stage cost estimation --- magnetic separation --- leaching --- flotation --- silica --- ultrasonic spray pyrolysis --- synthesis --- acid mine drainage --- red mud --- neutralization --- immobilization --- precipitation --- nitinol --- continuous vertical cast (CVC), NiTi rod --- atomic layer deposition --- corrosion properties --- potentiodynamic test --- electrochemical impedance spectroscopy --- rare earth elements --- recycling --- NdFeB --- magnet --- non-ferrous metals --- cavitation erosion --- optical microscopy --- electron microscopy --- atomic force microscopy --- aluminium --- thin-layer electrolysis --- molten salts --- halides --- capillary cell --- electrorefining --- non-commercial copper anode --- waste solution --- high content --- Ni --- Pb --- Sn --- Sb --- passivation --- anode slime --- pentlandite --- oxidation --- reaction mechanism --- phase analysis --- silver --- copper --- nanoparticles --- antibacterial --- MnO2 --- cobalt oxide Co3O4 --- perovskite materials --- oxygen reduction in alkaline media --- electrocatalyst --- Pt catalyst --- nanocomposite --- mixed oxides --- NiAl2O4 --- ZnAl2O4 --- electrocatalysis --- nanocatalyst --- noble metal nanoparticles --- leachate --- metal ions extraction --- selectivity --- Fe removal --- electrodeposition --- conductometry

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Electrochemical surface science (EC-SS) is the natural advancement of traditional surface science (where gas–vacuum/solid interfaces are studied) to liquid (solution)/electrified solid interfaces. Such a merging between two different disciplines—i.e., surface science (SS) and electrochemistry—officially advanced ca. three decades ago. The main characteristic of EC-SS versus electrochemistry is the reductionist approach undertaken, inherited from SS and aiming to understand the microscopic processes occurring at electrodes on the atomic level. A few of the exemplary keystone tools of EC-SS include EC-scanning probe microscopies, operando and in situ spectroscopies and electron microscopies, and differential EC mass spectrometry (DEMS). EC-SS indirectly (and often unconsciously) receives a great boost from the requirement for rational design of energy conversion and storage devices for the next generation of energetic landscapes. As a matter of fact, the number of material science groups deeply involved in such a challenging field has tremendously expanded and, within such a panorama, EC and SS investigations are intimately combined in a huge number of papers. The aim of this Special Issue is to offer an open access forum where researchers in the field of electrochemistry, surface science, and materials science could outline the great advances that can be reached by exploiting EC-SS approaches. Papers addressing both the basic science and more applied issues in the field of EC-SS and energy conversion and storage materials have been published in this Special Issue.

Pd thin films --- n/a --- Auger-Electron Spectroscopy --- benchmarking --- potential-dependent structures --- CO electro-oxidation --- surface reconstruction --- photo-electrochemistry --- nitrogen doping --- potential stepping --- DFT --- nanoparticles --- carbon nanofiber --- Pd --- gas diffusion electrode --- flexible ITO --- UPS --- palladium --- Lead OPD --- formic acid oxidation --- cobalt oxide --- adsorbed OH --- electrochemistry --- Pt --- mesopore --- DMFC --- pH and concentration effects --- solvothermal method --- direct methanol fuel cells --- EF-PEEM --- PVDF --- self-assembly --- PEMFC --- hard X rays --- photochemistry --- EQCM --- potential cycling --- surface alloy --- near ambient pressure XPS --- cobalt-based electrocatalyst --- silver single crystals --- Cu(111) --- electrodeposited alloys --- Pt single-crystal electrodes --- SOFC --- TiO2 --- oxygen evolution reaction --- silicon nanoparticles --- pump &amp --- graphitization --- in situ EC-STM --- oxygen reduction --- gold --- diazonium salts --- Au --- micropore --- solid/liquid interface --- XPS --- XAFS --- surface chemistry --- electrosynthesis --- porous fiber --- surface science --- click chemistry --- adhesion --- in situ --- methanol oxidation reaction --- hydroxyl radical --- mass transport --- free electron laser --- cyclic voltammetry --- redox properties --- electro-oxidation --- X-ray absorption spectroscopy --- hydrogen adsorption --- electrodeposition --- electrocatalysis --- Ordered mesoporous carbon --- Corrosion Protection --- electrochemical interface --- cyclic voltammetry (CV) --- FEXRAV --- photoelectron simulations --- Pt–Ru catalysts --- d-band theory --- bimetallic alloy --- photoconversion --- ordered mesoporous carbons --- carbon nanofibers (CNFs) --- platinum --- water splitting --- Surface Modification --- EPR spectroscopy --- scanning photoelectron microscopy --- model catalyst --- energy dispersive --- porphyrins --- combined non-covalent control --- AES --- spin-coating --- SAMs --- water oxidation --- in-situ X-ray diffraction --- Au nanocrystals --- model systems --- platinum single crystals --- cathode --- redox monolayers --- surface nanostructures --- bifunctional oxygen electrode --- polymer --- photoelectrochemistry --- metal-electrolyte interface --- electrocatalysts --- APTES --- porogen --- electrophoretic deposition --- thin-films --- ammonia activation --- graphene --- ORR --- polypyrrole --- iridium --- surface area --- reduced graphene oxide --- Magnetite --- Platinum --- electrospinning --- catalysts --- Blackening of Steel --- switchable surfaces --- in situ ambient pressure XPS --- fuel cells --- methanol oxidation --- quick-XAS --- nickel --- CO oxidation --- solid oxide fuel cells --- operando --- probe --- CdS --- alkanthiols --- ECALE --- alkoxyamine surfaces --- underpotential deposition (upd) --- Pt-Ru catalysts