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Placebo effects raise some fundamental questions concerning the nature of clinical and medical research. This Element begins with an overview of the different roles placebos play, followed by a survey of significant studies and dominant views about placebo mechanisms. It then critically examines the concept of placebo and offers a new definition that avoids the pitfalls of other attempts. The main philosophical lesson is that background medical theories provide the ontology for clinical and medical research. Because these theories often contain incoherent and arbitrary classifications, the concept of placebo inherits the same messiness. The Element concludes by highlighting some impending challenges for placebo studies.

Placebos (Medicine) --- Pharmacology --- Philosophy.

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Placebos --- Placebo Effect --- Placebo Effect

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Placebos (Medicine) --- Effet placebo --- Placebo Effect --- Placebos --- Placebo Effect. --- Placebos. --- Effet placebo.

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Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is irreversible and often detected late. However, today there are effectice treatments that improve symptoms, limit exarcerbation outbreaks and improve quality of life. The earlier COPD is detected, the better it can be treated and ensure a better quality of life for long term COPD sufferers. COPD is diagnosed by using international guidelines provided by the Global Initiative for Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD). One of the treatments that may be used to solow down worsening of this disease consists of steroid inhalers. However, it still needs to be debated wether these steroids make a difference to patient with COPD. This work focuses on the analysis of the effectiveness and safety in COPD of inhaled corticosteroids alone compared with placebo, and of inhaled corticosteroids in combination with long acting B2-agonists compared with long actin B2-agonists alone. The effects are mesured on breathing ability, death rates, how often pneumonias and exacerbations happened, how often rescue inhalers had to be used, quality of life and side effects. According to current data and their critical analysis, a better benefit-risk balance is observed in patients with moderate to severe COPD (FEV < 50 %), who have frequent exacerbations. In other clinical phenotypes of COPD, the benefit of CSI is very limited, probably less than the risk of side effects and pneumonia.

Pulmonary Disease, Chronic Obstructive --- Glucocorticoids --- Placebos

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Alternative medicine. --- Placebo (Medicine). --- Placebos (Medicine).