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Spain’s structural reforms, implemented around 2012, have arguably contributed to a faster and stronger economic recovery. In particular, there is strong evidence that the 2012 labor market reforms increased wage flexibility, which helped the Spanish economy to regain competitiveness and create jobs. But the impact of these labor reforms on income inequality and social inclusion has not been analyzed much. This paper aims to shed light on this issue by employing an econometric decomposition procedure combined with the synthetic control method. The results indicate that the 2012 labor reforms have helped improve employment and income equality outcomes with no substantial impact on the overall risk of poverty. Nevertheless, the reforms appear to have induced a deterioration of average hours worked, in-work poverty, and possibly also of involuntary part-time employment.

Spain --- Labor --- Macroeconomics --- Employment --- Unemployment --- Wages --- Intergenerational Income Distribution --- Aggregate Human Capital --- Aggregate Labor Productivity --- Aggregate Factor Income Distribution --- Labor Economics Policies --- Economic Development: Human Resources --- Human Development --- Income Distribution --- Migration --- Labor Economics: General --- Labour --- income economics --- Labor market reforms --- Income inequality --- Income distribution --- National accounts --- Manpower policy --- Economic theory --- Labor economics --- Income economics

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This paper considers various dimensions and sources of gender inequality and presents policies and best practices to address these. With women accounting for fifty percent of the global population, inclusive growth can only be achieved if it promotes gender equality. Despite recent progress, gender gaps remain across all stages of life, including before birth, and negatively impact health, education, and economic outcomes for women. The roadmap to gender equality has to rely on legal framework reforms, policies to promote equal access, and efforts to tackle entrenched social norms. These need to be set in the context of arising new trends such as digitalization, climate change, as well as shocks such as pandemics.

India --- Sex discrimination in employment. --- Economic development. --- Gender equality. --- India. --- Women in development. --- Women''s Studies'. --- Gender Studies. --- Wage Level and Structure. --- Wage Differentials. --- Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs: Public Policy. --- Mobility, Unemployment, and Vacancies: Public Policy. --- Labor Discrimination. --- Economic Development: Human Resources. --- Human Development. --- Income Distribution. --- Migration. --- Technological Change: Choices and Consequences. --- Diffusion Processes. --- Economics of Gender. --- Non-labor Discrimination. --- Health: General. --- Education: General. --- women & girls. --- Social discrimination & equal treatment. --- Gender studies, gender groups. --- Health economics. --- Education. --- Women. --- Gender inequality. --- Gender. --- Health. --- Sex discrimination. --- Sex role. --- Diffusion Processes --- Economic Development: Human Resources --- Economics of Gender --- Education --- Education: General --- Gender inequality --- Gender Studies --- Gender studies --- Gender studies, gender groups --- Gender --- Health economics --- Health --- Health: General --- Human Development --- Income Distribution --- Labor Discrimination --- Migration --- Mobility, Unemployment, and Vacancies: Public Policy --- Non-labor Discrimination --- Sex discrimination --- Sex role --- Social discrimination & equal treatment --- Technological Change: Choices and Consequences --- Wage Differentials --- Wage Level and Structure --- Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs: Public Policy --- Women & girls --- Women --- Women's Studies

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The paper provides estimates of global relative poverty trends from 1970 onwards. Relative poverty is shown to have decreased significantly, but at the same time there has been a worsening poverty outcome among up to one billion of the world's poorest citizens. The paper also proposes a straightforward method for dividing an income distribution into classes of poor, rich, and middle-class.

Business & Economics --- Economic History --- Poverty. --- Income distribution. --- Distribution of income --- Income inequality --- Inequality of income --- Destitution --- Distribution (Economic theory) --- Disposable income --- Wealth --- Basic needs --- Begging --- Poor --- Subsistence economy --- Macroeconomics --- Demography --- Poverty and Homelessness --- Economic Development: Human Resources --- Human Development --- Income Distribution --- Migration --- Personal Income, Wealth, and Their Distributions --- Welfare, Well-Being, and Poverty: General --- Aggregate Factor Income Distribution --- Demographic Economics: General --- Poverty & precarity --- Population & demography --- Personal income --- Poverty --- Income distribution --- Population and demographics --- National accounts --- Income --- Population --- United States

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This paper applies, through a case study on Malawi, a simple methodology indicating the first-round (i.e., price) effects of macroeconomic policies on real earnings of the poor. As the economic program in Malawi has not involved substantial exchange rate action or cuts in subsidies, the real incomes of the poor have been most clearly affected by the pricing policies of the agricultural parastatal and the overall anti-inflationary measures incorporated in the program; developments in minimum wages have also been important. The study suggests that, on balance, these various factors have led to an increase in real incomes of the poor over the program period.

Labor --- Macroeconomics --- Public Finance --- Inflation --- Incomes Policy --- Price Policy --- Measurement and Analysis of Poverty --- Government Policy --- Provision and Effects of Welfare Program --- Economic Development: Human Resources --- Human Development --- Income Distribution --- Migration --- Aggregate Factor Income Distribution --- Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs: General --- National Government Expenditures and Related Policies: General --- Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs: Public Policy --- Price Level --- Deflation --- Labour --- income economics --- Public finance & taxation --- Income --- Wages --- Real wages --- Expenditure --- Minimum wages --- National accounts --- Prices --- Expenditures, Public --- Minimum wage --- Malawi --- Income economics

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In the growth literature, evidence on income convergence is mixed. In the development literature, health and education indicators are also often used. This study examines whether health and education levels are converging across countries and calculates their convergence speed, using data from 100 countries during 1970–96. A 3SLS procedure is used in a joint analysis of human capital convergence. The results confirm that investments in education and health are closely linked. We find unconditional convergence for life expectancy and infant survival, and enrollment rates, on average and by gender; and conditional convergence for all human capital indicators, including class size.

Labor --- Macroeconomics --- Women''s Studies' --- Economic Development: Human Resources --- Human Development --- Income Distribution --- Migration --- Economic Growth and Aggregate Productivity: General --- Human Capital --- Skills --- Occupational Choice --- Labor Productivity --- Health: Other --- Health: General --- Education: General --- Economics of Gender --- Non-labor Discrimination --- Personal Income, Wealth, and Their Distributions --- Health economics --- Education --- Labour --- income economics --- Gender studies --- women & girls --- Health --- Human capital --- Women --- Personal income --- Gender --- National accounts --- Income --- South Africa --- Income economics --- Women & girls --- Women's Studies